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Printmakers work in a variety of mediums, including water based ink, water color paint, oil based ink, oil pastels, and any water soluble solid pigment such as Caran D'Ache crayons. The work is created on a flat surface called a plate. Depending on the process used to lift the print, artists either carve or draw into their surfaces. Printmaking techniques that utilize digital methods are becoming increasingly popular and in many markets are the preferred method.
Surfaces used in printmaking include Plank s of wood, metal plates, a pane of Plexiglass , shellacked Book Board , or lithographic stones. A separate technique, called screenprinting, makes use of a porous fabric mesh stretched in a frame, called a screen. Small prints can even be made using the surface of a potato.

Printmakers apply colour to their prints in many different ways. Often colour in printmaking that involves etching, screenprinting, woodcut or linocut is applied by either using separate plates, blocks or screens or by using a reductionist approach. In the mutliple plate approach to colour there may be a number of plates, screens or blocks produced, each providing a different aspect of the print picture as a whole. Each separate plate, screen or block will be inked up in a different colour and applied in a particular sequence to produce the entire picture. On average about 3 to 4 plates are produce but there are occasions where a printmaker may use up to seven plates. Every application of another plate of colour will interact with the colour already applied to the paper and this must be kept in mind when producing the separation of colours. The lightest colours are often applied first and then that darker colours successively until the last one.

The reductionist approach to producing colour is to start with a lino or wood block that is either blank or with a simple etching. Upon each printing of colour the printmaker will then further cut into the lino or woodblock removing more material and then apply another colour and reprint. Each successive removal of lino or wood from the block will expose the already printed colour to the viewer of the print.

With some printing techniques like Chine-collé or Monotyping the printmaker may sometimes just paint into the colours they want like a painter would and then print.

The Subtractive Colour concept is also used in Offset or Digital Print and is present in bitmap or vectorial software in CMYK or other colour spaces.
, considered by many to be one of the most important printmakers ever.]]


TECHNIQUES

The four most popular printmaking techniques are Woodcut , Etching , Lithography , and Screen-printing . Other printmaking techniques include Chine-collé , Collography , Monotyping , Engraving , Drypoint , Mezzotint , Linocut , Aquatint and Batik .Monotyping is not a printmaking technique in strict sense so it does not produce a matrix in which multiple artworks can be produced; it is more a printed painting than a proof of print. These techniques can also be combined.

Digital processes include Giclée , photographic mediums and combination of both digital process and conventional processes.


Woodcut


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Woodcut , a type of Relief Print , is thought to be the earliest printmaking technique, dating back to 9th Century China . Far east artists excelled in this media (but not in etching which seems to be traditionally western).
The Artist draws a sketch on a plank of Wood and then uses sharp tools to carve away the parts of the block that he/she does not want to receive the ink. The raised parts of the block are inked with a Brayer , then a sheet of Paper , perhaps slightly damp, is placed over the block. The block is then rubbed with a Baren or Spoon , or is run through the press.
Separate blocks are used for each Color .





Etching

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Etching is part of the Intaglio family (along with Engraving , Drypoint , Mezzotint , and Aquatint .)
Etching prints are generally linear and often contain fine detail and Contour s. Lines can vary from smooth to sketchy. An etching is opposite of a woodcut in that the raised portions of an etching remain blank while the Crevice s hold ink.

A Waxy Acid-resist , known as a Ground , is applied to a Metal Plate , most often Copper or Zinc but Steel plate is another medium with different qualities.
There are two common types of ground, hard ground and soft ground.
Hard ground can be applied in two ways. Solid hard ground comes in a hard waxy block. To apply hard ground of this variety the plate to be etched is placed upon a hot-plate, a kind of metal worktop that is heated up. The plate heats up and the ground is applied by hand, melting onto the plate as it is applied. The ground is spread over the plate as evenly as possible using a tool called a ''Dabber''. A dabber is often a short wooden handle with a large round wadding at the end covered in leather. The ground is spread over the plate using a rocking motion with the dabber. Once applied the etching plate is removed from the hot-plate and allowed to cool which hardens the ground.

The second way to apply hard ground is by liquid hard ground. This comes in a can and is applied with a brush upon the plate to be etched. Exposed to air the hard ground will harden. Some printmakers use bitumen as hard ground, although often bitumen is used to protect steel plates from rust and copper plates from aging.
After the ground has dried the artist uses a sharp tool to scratch into the ground, exposing the metal.

Soft ground also comes in liquid form and is allowed to dry but it does not dry hard like hard ground and is impressionable.
After the soft ground has dried the printmaker may apply materials such as leaves, objects, hand prints and so on which will penetrate the soft ground and expose the plate underneath.

The ground can also be applied in a fine mist, using powdered rosin or spraypaint. This process is called aquatint, and allows for the creation of tones, shadows, and solid areas of color.

The plate is then completely submerged in an acid that eats away at the exposed metal. Copper plates and zinc plates are often dipped into feric acid and steel plates are dipped into nitric acid. Usually 2 parts Feric to 2 parts water or for steel plate, 1 part nitric to 3 parts water. The strength of the acid determines the speed of the etching process.
The etching process is known as ''biting'' (see also spit-biting below).
The waxy resist protects the Acid from biting the parts of the plate have not been exposed.
The longer the plate remains in the acid the deeper the Incision s become.

During the etching process the printmaker uses a bird feather or similar item to wave away bubbles and detritus, produced by the dissolving process, from the surface of the plate. If a bubble is allowed to remain upon the plate then it will stop the acid biting into the plate where the bubble resides. Zinc produces more bubbles much more rapidly than copper and steel and some artists use zinc's ability to do this to produce interesting round bubble like circles within their prints like a milky way effect.
The detritus is powdery dissolved metal that fills the etched grooves and can also block the acid from biting evenly into the exposed plate surfaces. Another way to remove detritus from a plate is to place the plate to be etched face down within the acid upon plasticine balls or marbles, although the drawback of this technique is the exposure to bubbles and the inability to remove them readily.

For aquatinting a printmaker will often cut off a test strip of metal about a centimetre to three centimetres wide. The strip will be dipped into the acid for a specific number of minutes or seconds. The metal strip will then be removed and the acid washed off with water. Part of the strip will be covered in ground and then the strip is redipped into the acid and the process repeated. The ground will then be removed from the strip and the strip inked up and printed. This will show the printmaker the different degrees or depths of the etch, and therefore the strength of the ink colour, based upon how long the plate is left in the acid.

The plate is removed from the acid and washed over with water to remove the acid. The ground is removed with a solvent such as Turpentine . Turpentine is often removed from the plate using methylated spirits as turpentine is greasy and can affect the application of ink and the printing of the plate.

The entire plate is inked.

Spit-biting is a process whereby the printmaker will apply acid to a plate with a brush in certain areas of the plate. The plate may be aquatinted for this purpose or exposed directly to the acid.

A piece of matte board, a plastic "card", or a wad of cloth is often used to push the ink into the incised lines. The surface is wiped clean with a piece of stiff fabric known as '' Tarlatan '' and then either wiped with Newsprint Paper or some printmakers prefer to use the blade part of their hand or palm at the base of their thumb. The wiping leaves ink in the incisions. You may also use a folded piece of organza silk to do the final wipe. If copper or zinc plates are used plate surface is left very clean and therefore white in the print. If steel plate is used then the plate's natural tooth gives the print a grey background similar to the effects of aquatinting. As a result steel plates do not need aquatinting as gradual exposure of the plate via successive dips into acid will produce the same result.

A damp piece of paper is placed over the plate and it is run through the press.





Lithography

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Lithography is a technique invented in 1798 by Alois Senefelder and based on the chemical Repulsion of Oil and Water .
A porous Surface , normally Limestone , is used; the image is drawn on the limestone with an oily medium.
Acid is applied, transferring the oil to the limestone, leaving the image 'burned' into the surface. Gum arabic, a water soluble substance, is then applied, sealing the surface of the stone not covered with the drawing medium.
The stone is wetted, with water staying only on the surface not covered in oil-based residue of the drawing; the stone is then 'rolled up', meaning greasy ink is applied with a roller covering the entire surface; since water repels the grease in the ink, the ink adheres only to the oily parts, perfectly inking the image.
A sheet of wet paper is placed on the surface, and the image is transferred to the paper by the pressure of the printing press. Lithography is known for its ability to capture fine Gradation s in shading and very small detail.

A variant is photo-lithography, in which the image is captured by photographic processes on Metal Plate s; printing is carried out in the same way.





Screen-printing


Screen-printing (also known as "silk-screening" or "serigraphy") creates bold color using a stencil technique.
The artist draws an image on a piece of paper or plastic film can also be used.)
The image is cut out creating a Stencil .
(Keep in mind the pieces that are cut away are the areas that will be colored.)
A Screen is made of a piece of fabric (originally silk) stretched over a Wood Frame . The stencil is affixed to the screen.
The screen is then placed on top of a piece of dry paper or fabric.
Ink is then placed across the top length of the screen.
A Squeegee (rubber blade) is used to spread the ink across the screen, over the stencil, and onto the paper/fabric.
The screen is lifted once the image has been transferred onto the paper/fabric.
Each color requires a separate stencil. The screen can be re-used after cleaning.





Digital Prints


Digital prints refers to prints designed upon a computer, from drawings, other prints, photographs, light pen and tablet and so on. These prints can be printed to a canvas, plastic canvas or printer. Such prints can be printed or photocopied and then transferred to traditional printing paper (Velin Arch or Stonehenge 200gsm for example) by placing the print face down upon the paper and rubbing Wintergreen oil upon the back of the print and passing it through a press. The result is the image is transferred to the actual paper. It is not known yet what the life of such an image is nor for any kind of digital print.

Digital prints that are stored and sold electronically cause a lot of problems when it comes to authorship of the print and the protection of pecuniary interests. Adobe try to overcome the digital edition problem with their Adobe Reader application.

Digital prints are truly multiple originals as they rely upon code to produce the image and every copy is actually the writing of code upon a disk or reproduction of code. Prints produced via any other medium are copies and not truly original unless a process of manual editing of the final result or plate is applied.

A sociologist who has had a large influence upon digital printmaking is Jean Baudrillard and his theory of simulation and simulacra.





Protective Printmaking Equipment


Protective clothing is very important for printmakers who engage in etching. In the past many printmakers did not live far past 35 to 40 years of age due to their exposure and soaking up of various acids and liquids or their inhaling of rosin from aquatinting.

Whereas in the past printmakers used to put their plates in and out of acid baths with their bare hands, nowadays printmakers use industrial strength rubber gloves. They also wear industrial gas masks that are fitted with fume filters for the acid baths. Acid baths are often built with fumigators above them also.

Often an emergency cold shower is nearby in case of acid spillages and eye wash. Some printmakers where goggles when dealing with acid.

The masks often have particle filters for aquatinting. Plates are put into an aquatinting cabinet and a fan is turned by hand blowing rosin up into the top of the cabinet. The
rosin floats down and settles upon the plate (anywhere between 5 to 15 minutes until covering the plate properly). When the plate is taken out of the cabinet often rosin powder is still floating down and comes out into the area where the printmaker is. Should this rosin powder be inhaled it is taken into the lungs where it remains throughout life, without dissolving or being removed from the lungs. Rosin is a serious health hazard and especially to printmakers in the past who used to just hold their breath within an aquatinting room.

Barrier cream is often used upon a printmaker's hands both when putting them inside the protective gloves and if using their hands to wipe-back plates (remove ink from plates).

Sterile plasters and bandages are always available especially if using steel plates that become extremely sharp when filing the edges of the plate down so as not to tear the paper with the edges of the plate when passing the print through the press. You soon realise why swords were made from steel when working with steel plates.





SEE ALSO




REFERENCES



SUGGESTED READING

Ivins, William Jr. ''Prints and Visual Communication.'' Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1953. ISBN 0262590026


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