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Most citation signals are placed in front of the citation to which they apply. For example: ''Signal'' Source of the signal.


PARENTHETICAL SIGNAL

The parenthetical signal provides additional information about the citation. Unlike the other signals, it follows immediately after the full citation. It usually is brief, about one sentence, and provides a quick explanation of how the citation either supports or is in disagreement with the proposition. For example: Source of the material (This is where the explanatory information goes.)


LIST OF COMMON CITATION SIGNALS

Indicating support:
  • signal is appropriate where the cited authority (i) directly states the proposition, (ii) identifies the source of a quotation, or (iii) identifies an authority referred to in the text.

  • ''E.g.,'' means there is more legal authority supporting the same proposition as the original cited authority, but whose inclusion is not helpful, repetitive, or unnecessary.

  • ''Accord'' usually is used to signify that some Persuasive Authority also supports the proposition of the quoted authority.

  • ''See'' signifies that a particular source clearly supports the proposition, but usually not a concise quotation. ''See'' is generally the most common signal used in journal articles.

  • ''See also'' signals support for a given proposition, but not as clearly as ''see''.

  • ''Cf.'' literally means "compare" and is used to signify significance by Analogy . Frequently, ''Cf.'' requires parenthetical signals to clarify the importance.

  • ''See generally'' means that a source provides useful background information. Usually used in the citation of Secondary Source s.


Indicating contradiction:
  • ''But see'' means that the original citation supports the proposition and that the following citation supports something else. There does not need to be a direct contradiction.

  • ''But cf.'' the following citation supports a contrary position by way of analogy.

  • ''Contra'' means that the following citation is in direct contradiction with the original source.


Suggesting a useful comparison:
  • ''Compare… with'' is a literal comparison between two or more sources. Like ''Cf.'', this signal is usually accompanied by parenthetical signals to clarify any contradiction.



SEE ALSO