Latin Grammar

• ''Nominative:'' indicates the subject of the sentence, or a predicate nominative: ''Cornelia'' is a girl.


• ''Vocative:'' case of direct address: ''Cornelia,'' go outside. This generally looks exactly like Nominative, except in second declension masculine nouns ending in "us" where the "us" is turned to an "e", and second declension masculine nouns ending in "ius", where the "ius" is turned into "ī". E.g., "servus" becomes "serve", and "filius" becomes "filī". The only nouns with a distinct vocative case ending are those in the second declension and those third declension nouns borrowed from Ancient Greek (where the final syllable is often shortened).


• ''Genitive:'' The genitive is always dependent on other elements in the sentence. It usually can be translated by the English prepositon ''of''. Its uses can be broken down into three major categories:


• # Genitives dependent on nouns.


• # Genitives dependent on adjectives.


• # Genitives dependent on verbs.


• ---Genitives dependent on nouns:


• ---: The genitive allows one noun to limit or define another noun which does not denote the same thing. English, we can say ''dog house'' or ''clam shell'' using one noun to define or limit another which does not denote the same thing. That's not done in Latin. In Latin, the limiting noun must be turned into a adjective (''dog house'' => ''canine house'') or be put in the genitive (''clam shell'' => ''shell of a clam''). Common uses include:



• ---

  --possessive genitive: The hair ''of Cornelia'' is long.



• ---

  --objective genitive: The construction ''of the building.'' Here the genitive is the object of a verbal action implied by the noun it modifies.



• ---

  --genitive of description: ''A man of great courage''



• ---

  --partitive genitive: Many ''of my friends'' went to the city.


• ---Genitives dependent on adjectives:



• ---

  --If an adjective implies a verbal notion, it may take a genitive to indicate the object of that action: desirous ''of money''. (Compare the objective genitive above).



• ---

  --Sometimes genitives are added to adjectives to denote in reference to what an adjective is true: tired ''of war.''


• ---Genitives dependent on verbs:


• ---: Some Latin verbs can take the genitive, including verbs of remembering, forgetting, accusing, condemning, acquitting, and some verbs that indicate emotional reactions.


• ''Dative:'' indicates an indirect object: He gave the cookie ''to the boy''.


• ---''Dative of agent:'' Expresses agent when used with the future passive periphrastic, also known as the gerundive: ''The boy'' must do the work. (translated literally as "The work must be done ''by the boy''")


• ---''Dative of Reference'' often used with ''Dative of Purpose'' (named collectively as the ''Double Dative''): The general sent troops ''as aid'' (for the purpose of aid) ''for the general'' (with reference to the general).


• ---''Dative of Possession'': ''Mihi pecunia est.'' I have money. Literally: "The money is to me."


• ''Accusative:'' indicates a direct object: Cornelia killed ''Marcus''. Also can be used with a preposition: We went into ''the bedroom''. The accusative may also indicate the extent of time or space.


• ''Ablative:'' many uses, including conditions where English would use a preposition instead. Often used when someone or something is being passive, rather than active, like "He was at the tree," rather than "He climbed the tree."


• ---the object of a preposition: He is inside the ''palace''.


• ---time: ''At the tenth hour'' he died.


• ---means: He beat me ''with a stick.'' OR He yelled ''with a great voice.''


• ---agent of a passive verb: The cookie was thrown ''by Cornelia'' across the room.


• ''Locative:'' used to describe the location or movement of a person or thing. The locative only applies to cities, towns, and small islands, and is not used for countries or continents. Also, a few nouns survived (such as ''domus,'' meaning house, and ''rus, ruris,'' meaning countryside).

The dative singular of 4th declension neuter nouns ends in -ū,

while for masculine and feminine 4th declension nouns it ends in -uī.

• ''Cornelia bona'' (feminine) (good Cornelia)


• ''Cornelius bonus'' (masculine) (good Cornelius)

• ''Cornelia est fortior quam Cornelius.''
  

Cornelia is braver than Cornelius.

• ''Cornelia est fortissima.'' (Cornelia is the bravest.)

• ''Present'', ( Latin : ''praesens'') describes actions happening at the time of speaking: The slave ''carries'' the wine jar.


• ''Imperfect'', ( Latin : ''imperfectum'') describes actions continuing in the past: The slave ''was carrying'' the wine jar.


• ''Future'', ( Latin : ''futurum simplex'') describes actions taking place in the future: The slave ''will carry'' the wine jar.


• ''Perfect'', ( Latin : ''perfectum'') describes actions completed by the present: He ''has taught'' (or ''taught'') the boy.


• ''Pluperfect'', ( Latin : ''plusquamperfectum'') describes actions occurring before another past action: He ''had taught'' the boy. Notice the difference, it's important.


• ''Future Perfect'', ( Latin : ''futurum exactum'') describes actions that will be completed some time in the future: By tomorrow, he ''will have sent'' the letter.

There are three Moods ( Latin : ''modus''):

• ''Indicative'', ( Latin : ''indicativus'') which states facts: That slave ''is carrying'' a wine jar.


• ''Subjunctive'', ( Latin : ''coniunctivus'') which is used for possibilities, intentions, necessities etc: It is necessary that the centurion ''defeat'' the barbarians.


• ''Imperative'', ( Latin : ''imperativus'') used for commands: "''Carry'' this wine jar!"

There are two Voices ( Latin : ''genus''):

• ''Active'', ( Latin : ''activum'') where the verb is done by the subject: The slave ''carried'' the wine jar


• ''Passive'', ( Latin : ''passivum'') where the verb is done to the subject: The wine jar ''was carried'' by the slave

With this information, we can sort the verbs into their groups of six, starting with the first conjugation, ''portare'', to carry, as follows:

• Present for contemporaneity.


• Perfect for anteriority.


• Future participle of the verb plus present subjunctive of ''sum'' to express posteriority (because there is no subjunctive future)

When the regent sentence has a past tense verb, the rule orders that the subordinate sentence uses the subjunctive:

• Past for contemporarity.


• Pluperfect for anteriority.


• Future participle of the verb plus imperfect subjunctive of the verb sum.

Some examples:

• Ignoro quid agas (I don't know what you are doing)


• Ignoro quid egeris (I don't know what you have done)


• Ignoro quid acturus sis (I don't know what you will do)


• Ignoravi quid ageres (I didn't know what you were doing)


• Ignoravi quid egisses (I didn't know what you had done)


• Ignoravi quid acturus esses (I didn't know what you would do)