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HISTORICAL FIGURES Lucius Artorius Castus Lucius Artorius Castus was a Roman general who lived in the late Second Century AD . He was ''dux'' (commander) of several legions in Britannia , where Emperor Commodus sent him in the year 181 . Along with his personal legion, he guarded Hadrian's Wall (the border between Britannia , or Roman England, and Caledonia , or barbarian Scotland ) with a contingent of 5,500 Sarmatian (south Ukrainian ) heavy cavalry. Castus’ standard was a large red dragon pennant; auxiliary forces did not use eagle standards. From 183 - 185 , the Caledonians overran Hadrian’s Wall, and Castus led the defense of Britannia. In 185, when his legion collapsed, Castus returned to the northern city of Eboracum , and was then sent by the governor of Britannia to lead cavalry cohorts against an uprising in northwest Germany. Etymological links can be made tracing the name Arthur to Artorius; it is also true that no other recorded person in Britain , Ireland , or Scotland bears a name similar to ''Arthur'' until after Castus’ tour of duty in Britannia was over (However, Arthur is always Latinized into ''Arthurus'', never ''Artorius'', thus suggesting that it was a distinct name). Arthur’s pennant is said to be the Pendragon , a red dragon similar to the modern Welsh Flag — and as mentioned above, Castus used a dragon standard. In the earliest descriptions of Arthur, he is not a king, but is referred to as a ''dux bellorum'' or "commander of war"; as also mentioned above, Castus held the Roman rank of dux. In the '' Historia Britonum '', written shortly after AD 820, there is a list of twelve battles Arthur is stated to have been victorious in. About three centuries later, Geoffrey Of Monmouth in his '' History Of The Kings Of Britain '', places these twelve battles in the north against barbarians. Seven of these battles can, with little stretching, be matched to battles Castus fought. Geoffrey also adds that Arthur fought a civil war, and twice took troops across the sea to Armorica , once to support the Roman emperor and once to deal with his own rebels. Castus’ own legion mutinied against him, and he was sent to lead cavalry units in northwest Gaul – the location of the region of Armorica – both against rebels and in support of the Roman emperor. Earlier sources also place Arthur’s headquarters not at Camelot but at Caerleon , the "Fortress of Legions". Eboracum , sometimes referred to as ''Urbe Legionum'' or the "City of the Legion", was the headquarters of both Castus and of legions patrolling Hadrian’s Wall. Sarmatian connection The term "Sarmatian connection" was put forth by C. Scott Littleton and Ann C. Thomas in 1978 to describe several connections between the Sarmatian people and the history and later legend of King Arthur. The Sarmatians were a group of horse riding nomads from what is now southern Ukraine , known in the 2nd century for their skill as heavy cavalry. In AD 175 Marcus Aurelius hired 8,000 Sarmatians into Roman service; 5,500 of these recruits were sent to the northern borders of Britain where they joined Legio VI Victrix, a legion led by Lucius Artorius Castus. Rather than being sent home upon the completion of their twenty year term of service, these men were settled in a unique military colony in modern-day Lancashire , where their descendants were still documented as a "troop of Sarmatian veterans" in 428. The culture of the Sarmatians is also relevant to the legends of Arthur. Apart from their skill as armored Knight s, the Sarmatians held great, near religious fondness, for their swords - their tribal worship was directed at a sword sticking up from the ground, similar to the Sword In The Stone motif. They carried standards in the form of Dragon s, a symbol also used by Arthur and his father Uther Pendragon . Their religious ceremonies were led by Shaman s from their homeland, perhaps like Merlin , and involved inhaling hallucinogenic vapors from a Cauldron , which has parallels in the legends of the vision-inducing Holy Grail . Finally, a precedent for Arthur's lost gravesite at Avalon can perhaps be found in the Sarmatian practice of burying leaders beside rivers, where their bodies and possessions were soon swept away. Proponents of the "Sarmatian connection" theory also look to the legends of the Sarmatians' descendants for evidence. The Ossetians , an Iranian People from the Ossetia region of Russia and Georgia , speak the Ossetic Language , the only Sarmatian language still spoken. The Ossetian Nart Saga s, indigenous epics celebrating the exploits of an ancient tribe of heroes, contain a number of interesting parallels to the Arthurian legends. First, the life of the Nart warrior Batraz is tied to his sword, which must be thrown into the sea at his death. When the wounded Batradz asks his last surviving comrade to do the task for him, his companion tries to fool him twice before finally hurling the weapon into the sea. This is very similar to the tale of Arthur's wondrous sword Excalibur , which proved his right to the throne, and must be returned to the Lady Of The Lake at his death by his last surving knight, Bedivere . Like Batradz' friend, Bedivere is reluctant to lose such a wonderful sword and lies to his master twice before finally assenting. Additionally, the Nart heroes Soslan and Sosryko collect the beards of vanquished enemies to trim their cloaks, which is the practice of Arthur's enemy Rience . Like Rience, Soslan has one last beard to obtain before his cloak is complete. Although they lived hundreds of years too early (the Saxons first came to Britain ''three centuries'' later), Lucius Artorius Castus and his Sarmatian cavalry were probably remembered in some form, and could have helped to create the basis for the early tales of King Arthur. While most "Sarmatian connection" supporters tie the origins of the Arthurian legend to Lucius Artorius Castus and his 2nd century cavalry, others suggest that the stories may have arrived with the Alans , who came to Gaul at around the historical Arthurian period. The heroes of the 2004 film '' King Arthur '' are loosely based on Lucius Artorius Castus and his Sarmatian cavalry. The film's Arthur is a descendant of Artorius and inherits his role of guarding Hadrian's Wall along with a troup of Sarmatian warriors. Magnus Maximus and other Western Emperors As the Western Roman Empire crumbled in the Fourth and Fifth Centuries , a number of ambitious generals in command of provincial armies rebelled and proclaimed themselves Emperor . In 383 , the Roman dux of Britannia, Magnus Maximus (aka Maximinius or ''Macsen Wledig'') proclaimed himself emperor and crossed, with his army, into Gaul . He quickly defeated and killed the Western Emperor Gratian , and for the next five years ruled the Western Empire, until Theodosius defeated and executed him in 388 . The connections that the title dux and the crossing into Gaul to battle with a Roman emperor have to Arthur already been made. In addition, according to Medieval Welsh texts, Arthur is described not as a king or a dux, but as an ''ymerawdwr'' (Welsh for "emperor", from the Latin '' Imperator ''). Maximianus himself was Celtic, although from the continent (having been born to a family of Celtiberian descent in Hispania ). According to Geoffrey, Maximianus was one of the kings of the Britons to precede Arthur, and was the nephew of Old King Cole , who was also Arthur's ancestor. With the name Macsen Wledig, Maximianus is featured in a story of the '' Mabinogion '', a collection of Medieval Welsh texts that also feature two stories on Arthur and one on Taliesin . As the Roman Empire continued to decay, there were numerous generals in Britannia who were raised to the purple, if even for a short time. One such was Constantine III , who ruled for four years before being executed; according to Geoffrey, Constantine III was Arthur's grandfather. Riothamus Riothamus (aka Rigothamus or Riotimus) was a historical figure whom ancient sources listed as "a King Of The Britons ". He lived in the late 5th Century, and the most of the stories about him were recorded in the Byzantine historian Jordanes ’ '' The Origin And Deeds Of The Goths '', written in the mid 6th Century, only about 80 years after the presumed death of Riothamus. Circa 460 , the Roman diplomat and Bishop Sidonius Apollinaris sent a letter to Riothamus, asking his help to quell unrest among the Brettones, British colonists living in Armorica. This letter still survives. In the year 470 , the Western Emperor Anthemius began a campaign against Euric , king of the Visigoths who were invading Gaul. Anthemius requested help from Riothamus, and Jordanes wrote that he crossed the ocean into Gaul with 12,000 warriors. The location of Riothamus’s army was betrayed to the Visigoths by the jealous Praetorian Prefect of Gaul, and Euric defeated him in a battle in Burgundy. Riothamus was last seen retreating near a town called Avallon. As said earlier, Arthur was said by the early sources to have crossed into Gaul twice, once to help a Roman emperor and once to subdue a civil war. Assuming that Riothamus was a king in Britain as well as Armorica, he did both. Arthur was also said to have been betrayed by one of his advisors, and Riothamus was betrayed by one of his supposed allies. Finally, it is well known how King Arthur was carried off to Avalon (which Geoffrey of Monmouth spells "Avallon") before he died; Riothamus, escaping death, was last known to have been in the vicinity of a town called Avallon. It is unknown whether Riothamus was a king in Britain, in Ireland or of Armorica; as Armorica was a British colony and Jordanes wrote that Riothamus "crossed the ocean", it is possible both are correct. The name ''Riothamus'' itself means "highest king", and so may just have been a title, perhaps worn by someone named Artorius or Arthur. On the other hand, Irish sources claim that Niall Of The Nine Hostages , Riothamus (High King) of Ireland, was campaigning in Gaul at this time, possibly dying about 455 in a campaign that went as far as the Alps. "All traditions agree that he died outside of Ireland. According to legend his followers carried his body back to Ireland, fighting seven battles along the way, and whenever they carried Niall's body before them they were unbeatable." The succeeding High King, Feradach Dathí , also known as Nath Í, son of Fiachrae, son of Eochaid Mugmedon , was also said to have made foreign conquests in Gaul at about this time, and died after being struck by lightning in the Alps. Ambrosius Aurelianus Ambrosius Aurelianus (also sometimes referred to as Aurelius Ambrosius) was a powerful Celto-Roman leader in Britain. He was renowned for his campaigns against the Saxons, and there is some speculation that he may have commanded the British forces at the Battle Of Badon Hill . At any rate, the battle was a clear continuation of his efforts. According to Gildas (an early British historian and priest who may have been born during Aurelianus’ lifetime) in his sermon, ''On the Ruin of Britain'', following a massive Saxon invasion, Aurelianus was the only person who stayed calm, (despite the fact that his parents and most other Roman settlers had been killed in the attacks). Subsequently, Aurelianus became leader of the remaining British (according to the Major Chronicle Annals, he entered power in 479 ), organized them, and led them in their first victory against the Saxons, although subsequent battles went both ways. Gildas also wrote that Aurelianus’ parents "wore the purple", and thus were apparently descendant from Roman emperors. The Aurelii were a noted Roman Senatorial family, and it is possible that Ambrosius was descended from them. Badon Hill, depending on varying sources and archeological evidence, was fought sometime between 491 and 516 (Gildas, born in 494 , wrote that the battle took place at the year of his birth) with most scholars accepting a date around 500 . The location of the battle is thought to have been in southwest England , perhaps near the town on Bath (called Badon by the Saxons) or the nearby Solsbury Hill , where an ancient hillfort existed. However, some believe that Badon Hill is actually somewhere to the north, near or in modern Scotland . Badon Hill was fought between the British and the invading Saxons, believed to have been the South Saxons under their Bretanwealda (Lord of Britain, also spelled Bretwalda) Aelle , reigned 477 – c. 514 . This title, used by the Saxons, is an odd one as it is etymologically related to the Welsh Brythonic "Gweldig" meaning "Emperor", applied to a number of British rulers such as Cunedda , Cole and Maelgwyn . The Saxons were utterly defeated by the British (it is theorized that Aelle may have died in the battle), and did not again attack the Celts until 571 ; even by the 590s the Celts were still inflicting large defeats on the Saxon kingdoms, leaving a final "golden age" for Celtic civilization in Britain. Gildas fails to name the commander at Badon but he referred to one of his contemporary "fetter kings" as having been "charioteer to the bear". According to the Welsh Bard Taliesin , who lived approximately 534 - 599 , the British commander at Badon was the "chief giver of feasts" (''supreme commander'', perhaps related to dux) Arthur, to whom the victory is attributed in all later accounts. Owing to a possible mistranslation of a word from Gildas, describing Aurelianus as either the "ancestor" or the "grandfather" of his descendants of Gildas’ generation, it is possible that Aurelianus lived the generation before the Battle of Badon. Geoffrey of Monmouth’s ''History of the Kings of Britain'' also states that Arthur led the forces at Badon; on the other hand, Geoffrey is notoriously unreliable and much of what he wrote is incompatible with factual history. However, Geoffrey made Aurelianus a king of Britain, and older brother of Uther Pendragon , the father of King Arthur, thus relating Aurelianus and Arthur. He also states that Aurelianus was the son of the usurper emperor Constantine III , although it is extremely unlikely to have actually been true. DEITIES AND LEGENDS The word ''arth'' is modern Welsh for "bear", and among Continental Celts (although not in Britain) there were several bear gods named Artos or Artio . Also, ''artur'' (Welsh) and ''arturus'' ( Latin ) meant "bear-man". King Arthur was supposedly referred to by some writers as the ''Bear of Britain''. It has also been suggested that Arthur was originally a Celtic or prehistoric demigod, whose legends were gradually adapted to fit historical fact as a means of keeping the Celtic legends alive after Christianity was introduced. An example would be the sea-god Llyr , who became the legendary King Lear . Still another theory is that Arthur was a completely legendary person, the hero of Celtic bards meant to inspire and enthrall listeners, similar to the Germanic stories of Beowulf (or, in some stories, Bodvar Biarki ). In fact, Beowulf was composed (c. late 8th Century ) by Saxon Settlers in Britain around the time of the first stories of Arthur were emerging, and Arthur and Beowulf share several similarities: both were brave war-leaders who later became king; both carried magical swords; both were betrayed by their men; and both died without an heir. Dragons figure prominently in both stories, and like Arthur, the name ''Beowulf'' means "bear" (the alternate name for Beowulf, Bodvar Biarki, means "battle bear"). It is conceivable that Beowulf could have provided at least some influence on the emerging legends of King Arthur, or vice-versa, or both; ''Beowulf'' is set in the 6th Century , the time period of the early Arthurian Legends . Even if the earliest spoken form of the Anglo-Saxon legends did not influence the early stories of Arthur, the written version – first transcribed by monks (who Christianized it, just as they Christianized earlier Celtic legends) in England in the 10th Century , could have influenced later Arthurian writers such as Geoffrey Of Monmouth (who wrote in Wales in the 12th Century ). Arthur also may hold influences from Sigmund of the Volsunga Saga . Both Arthur and Sigmund had royal ties. Both drew a sword in order to prove those ties (Arthur drew his from a stone while Sigmund drew his from the roots of a tree). Both of them also had involvement with incest (and without actual knowledge until afterwards.) OTHER POSSIBLE INFLUENCES Arthnou Arthnou was a prince of Tintagel , who ruled in the 6th Century . Not much else is known of him. A piece of slate (the " Arthur Stone "), apparently originally built to dedicate a building or other public works, was discovered in excavations at a 6th-Century fortress in Tintagel. The slate states, in Latin, that "Artognou, father of a descendant of Coll, has had this built". ''Artognou'' was the Latin form of a name that would be pronounced ''Arthnou'', meaning "bear-like" and certainly linked to the name Arthur. Also from the fort at Tintagel were pieces of expensive pottery from Mediterranean civilizations of that time, showing that whoever ruled Tintagel then was rich, powerful, and notable, and had trade with the rest of the world that the rest of Britain did not have. According to Geoffrey of Monmouth and numerous other stories, King Arthur was born at Tintagel. It also said by Geoffrey that Arthur is a distant descendant of Old King Cole , whose name can also be spelled ''Coll''. Áedán mac Gabráin Áedán Mac Gabráin was a king of the Dál Riata Scotti from c. 574 to c. 608 . He was not British, but could have been an influence on Arthur nonetheless; some theories say that Arthurian legends began in the north, and spread south. It has also been said that the Battle of Badon Hill, supposedly commanded by Arthur, was fought in the north. Aidan was crowned on the island of Iona by St. Columba . Iona was the center of Scottish Christianity and the place where the first Christian church in Scotland was built, and Columba the priest who brought Christianity to Scotland. Thus, Iona and Columba can be compared to the southern Avalon and Joseph Of Arimathea , both of which are important in Arthurian legend. Iona and Avalon are even similarly named. As a matter of interest, Columba was educated by a priest taught by Gildas, the chronicler of the Battle of Badon Hill. Áedán sought to make Dál Riata independent from the Irish whose support Dál Riata had previously required, and in 603 went to war against the pagan Saxon kingdom of Northumbria . The resulting Battle Of Degsastan (whose location, like Badon Hill, is unknown) could have helped fuel the northern Badon Hill theory, although Aidan lost to the Saxons. In 608 , Áedán died and was buried on Iona, similar to how Arthur was supposedly buried on Avalon. One of his sons, Artuir, is also seen as a possible model for the legendary leader (see below). Artuir mac Áedáin Though he was the eldest son of Áedán mac Gabráin, Artuir never became king of Dál Riata; his brother Eochaid Buide ruled after his father's death. When Áedán apparently gave up his role and retired to monastic life, Artuir became war leader, though Áedán was officially still king. Thus it was Artuir who led the Scotti of Dál Riata in a war against the Picts, separate from the later war with Northumbria. He was ultimately killed in battle in 582. His name is almost certainly connected to the British Arthnou. Many aspects of the King Arthur legend correspond to Artuir’s life. Artuir made use of an old Roman fortress known as Camelon (possibly the later Camelot), and he died in battle near the river Allan , also known as Camallan (possibly Camlann). Like the Arthur of legend he had a sister called Morgan, and was a contemporary of Myrddin (who later came to be called Merlin). In myth, the mortally wounded Arthur was taken to an island called Avalon. In the 6th century there was an island surrounded by three rivers, Allan, Forth and Teith. On the island was a settlement called Invalone. This island was near the site of the real Artuir’s death and may be the inspiration for Avalon. However, this Artuir may have lived too late to be "the" Arthur, and he may have fought the wrong enemies. From the earliest accounts, Arthur's chief enemies were the ''Saxons'', not the Picts, and Áedán fought the Northumbrians ''after'' Artur's death. Artuir was part of the generation born ''after'' the Battle of Badon Hill, which took place between 491 and 516 . He was not the only person named "Artur" or some variant of the name in his time. There was also an Arthur King of Elmet , and an Arthur in Pembroke . By contrast, "Artur {Link without Title} " had been a rare name, almost unattested until after Badon was fought — which suggests that he was named after the original Arthur (whose name might have been a ''nom de guerre'' or an honorific). Also, Artuir mac Áedán died in battle with the Picts, while Arthur died in battle with Medraut (Mordred) of Lothian, who was ''not'' Pictish. While he may not be the original Arthur-figure ''per se'', his story, like that of the other "Arthurs" may well have contributed to the growing legends. OTHER ARTHURIAN CHARACTERS AND LOCATIONS It is clear that Avalon has long been connected in literary and folklore tradition with Glastonbury . However, Avalon as the location of Arthur's burial is probably derived from the Celtic myth of an "Isle of Apples" ("Ynys Afallach", hence Avalon) or "Isle of Glass". For theories regarding the location of Avalon, please look to This Article . Possible locations for Camelot can be found Here . The Battle of Camlann , the final battle between Arthur and Mordred, is likely to be fictional; however, it is recorded in the ''Welsh Annals'' or "Annales Cambriae" (although this is probably a later addition), and several sites in Britain have been associated with it. As he is recorded in the Annales Cambriae and other early sources, Mordred may have been a real person. The Annales Cambriae for the year 537 puts them at the Battle of Camlann, although it does not state that they fought on opposite sides. Instead, it refers to: ''"The Strife of Camlann in which Arthur and Medraut (Mordred) perished"'' (This has led some historians, as well as fiction authors like Mary Stewart to wonder if the historical Arthur and Mordred could have fought on the same side, against the Saxons). Morgan Le Fay , Arthur's half-sister of legend, was possibly based off of the Celtic goddesses Morrigan or Modron . The Fisher King may be based on the legend of Joseph Of Arimathea or the Celtic god Avalloc . As a matter of interest, in Celtic legend Avalloc was the father of Modron. As explained above, the Grail Quest may have been largely influenced by the Sarmatian folklore of Batraz and his Narts. However, Celtic and Anglo-Saxon traditions also are filled with quests by heroes, and in Celtic folklore there are tales of a magical cup with healing powers. These tales undoubtedly were adapted to refer to the Holy Grail as Britain became Christianized. Bedivere is, along with Arthur and Merlin, one of the oldest characters in Arthurian legend, and thus, is more likely to have been a real person than newer additions. He appears in the ''Mabinogion'' and is connected with the Welsh Finddu dynasty; his father, Pedrod, may have been the historical Welsh monarch Pedr. Merlin was the name given to two historical figures, Myrddin Wyllt ("Wild Merlin") and Myrddin Emrys ("Majestic Merlin"), combined by Geoffrey of Monmouth into one. The former was a bard who went mad after his king was killed by two rivals (one of whom was the above-mentioned Pedrod) and went to live in a forest. Merlin may also have been influenced by Taliesin. However, both Merlins and Taliesin all lived in the late 6th Century, after the time of most of the above-listed historical Arthurs. Vortigern , the usurper king who, according to legend, invited the Saxons to land in Britain as mercenaries before being killed by Uther Pendragon , was a historical person, as were ''' Hengest ''' and ''' Horsa ''', the Saxon leaders who rebelled against him. Vortigern itself (like Riothamus) apparently means "highest king", and he could possibly have been named something else. Table This following table shows the linkage between the “finished product” of Arthurian names, and their mythical and/or factual sources (some confirmed, others hypothesized). SEE ALSO EXTERNAL LINKS
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