Information AboutHinduism |
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Hinduism ( Sanskrit / Hindi ''''—, also known as '''''''''' , and '''''''''' ) is a Religion originating in the Indian Subcontinent , based on the Veda s and the beliefs of other people of India. It is one of the oldest religious traditions still practised today. The term ''Hinduism'' is heterogenous, as Hinduism consists of several schools of thought. It encompasses many religious rituals that widely vary in practice, as well as many diverse sects and philosophies. Many Hindu s venerate an array of deities, and consider them as manifestations of the one Supreme Monistic Cosmic Spirit '' Brahman '', while others focus on a singular concept of God, such as in Vaishnavism and Saivism . {Link without Title} Hinduism is the n kingdom of Nepal is the only nation in the world with Hinduism as its state religion. ETYMOLOGY
The Persian term was borrowed by the Ancient Greeks as ''Indos'', ''Indikos'' "Indian", from which in Latin was derived the name ''India'', ''Indianus''. The term ''hindu'' was also loaned into Sanskrit , as ' (), appearing in some early- Medieval texts (e.g. ' and ''''). In the Rigveda , the Indo-Aryans mention their expanse as ''sapta sindhu'' (the land of the seven rivers, one of the rivers being the Indus). This corresponds to ''hapta-hindu'' in the '' Avesta '' (''Vendidad: Fargard'' 1.18). Until about 19th century the term Hindu implied a culture and ethnicity and not a religion. When the British government started periodic censuses and established a legal system, the need arose to define Hinduism as a distinct religion, along the lines of Christianity or Islam . Some scholars, such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak , defined it as a religion based on the Vedas , using the analogy of the Bible being the basis of Christianity and the Qur'an being the Muslim scripture. means "Eternal Dharma ", and means "Vedic dharma". CORE CONCEPTS The Hindu faiths, practices and philosophies have evolved from the Vedic tradition (''Vaidika parampar'') and from the beliefs of the other Indian peoples; and philosophies such as Buddhism , Jainism and Sikhism , which conversely share common philosophical and spiritual traits in varying degrees with Hinduism. Many Hindus would argue that while the aforementioned philosophies have gained recognition as independent world religions, the great diversity within Hinduism itself is even greater and therefore it is best to refer to all Indic Religions under one umbrella. The Eternal Way '—"The Eternal Dharma (Ethos, Law, Values)"—the traditional name of Hinduism, alludes to the idea that certain spiritual principles hold true forever, transcending man-made constructs, representing a pure science of consciousness. This consciousness is not merely that of the body or mind and intellect, but of a transcendental state that exists within and beyond our somatic existence, the unsullied ' Soul ' of all. Religion to the Hindu is the eternal search for the divine '' Brahman '' (wordstem: / /; nominative singular: ' / /), translated as the "Supreme Immanent and Transcendent Truth" or the '''Cosmic Spirit'''. It can be argued that some Hindu spiritual traditions are both monotheistic and tolerant, as expressed in the ''Rig Veda'' verse: : :Truth is One, but sages call it by many name :Rig Veda 1:164:46. Hinduism's aspiration is best expressed in the following '' Mantra '' from the '' Brihadaranyaka Upanishad '':Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1:3:28 : OM (Lead me) from falsehood to truth, from darkness to light, from death to immortality. Basic beliefs '' describes the mechanics of the cosmos. Depicted here are Vishnu the Maintainer with his consort Lakshmi resting on Shesha Nag . The great sage Narada and Brahma the Creator are also pictured.]]Themes common to the value system of Hindus is the belief in '' Dharma '' (individual ethics, duties and obligations), '' Samsara '' ( Reincarnation /rebirth), '' Karma '' ("actions", leading to a cause and effect relationship), and '' Moksha '' (salvation) of every soul through a variety of paths, such as '' Bhakti '' (devotion), '' Karma '' (selfless action) and '' Jnana '' (enlightenment, knowledge), and of course, belief in God ( '' ''). ''Reincarnation'' or the soul's transmigration through a cycle of birth and death, until it attains , is governed by '' Karma ''. The philosophy of ''Karma'' lays forth the results of free-willed actions, which leave their imprint on the Soul or the self, called as '' Atman (Buddhism) ''. These actions determine the course of life and the life cycle for the soul in its subsequent life. Virtuous actions take the soul closer to the Supreme Divine, and lead to a birth with higher consciousness. Evil actions hinder this recognition of the Supreme Divine, and the soul takes lower forms of worldly life. All existence, according to Hinduism, from vegetation to mankind, are subjects to the eternal ''Dharma'', which is the natural law. Even Heaven ('' Svarga Loka '') and Hell ('' Naraka Loka '') are temporary. Liberation from this material existence and cycle of birth and death, to join, reach or develop a relationship with the "universal spirit" (depending on belief), is known as '''', which is the ultimate goal of all Hindus. The other principles include the '' Guru-shishya Tradition '', the divinity of the word OM , the power of '' Mantra s'' and manifestations of the Divine's spirit in all forms of existence ( Pantheism ). According to Hinduism, the essential spark of the '' Atman / Brahman '' is in every living being, the concept that all living beings are divine. Another belief is that though Hindu Mythology mentions a class of evil beings (demons, called ''Asuras'' or '), opposed to the celestial spirits (''Devas''), essential Hindu philosophy does not believe in any concept of a central Devil or Satan . This does not mean that all the evil in the world is attributed to God, but that the evil (deed or thought) is ascribed to human ignorance. Hinduism does not Evangelize as do Christianity and Islam . Since the Hindu scriptures are essentially silent on the issue of Religious Conversion , the issue is open to interpretations. Jha, Dwijendra N. "Looking for a Hindu Identity" . Pages 10, 39, 40 That is to say, it rather depends upon the Hindu society whether they consider a non-Hindu, who has got a ' into a Hindu sect, as a Hindu or not. Practice (Yoga Dharma) Hinduism includes a variety of practices, primarily spiritual devotion ('''' and the '' Yoga Sūtras ''. The '' Upanishad s'' are also important as a philosophical foundation for these practices. The Yogas provide a sort of alternate path (or faiths) that links together various Hindu beliefs, and can also be used to categorise non-Hindu beliefs that are seen as paths to , or '' Nirvana ''. The four objectives of life Another major aspect of Hindu ''dharma'' that is common to practically all Hindus is that of the '' Purusharthas '', the "four objectives of life". They are '' Kama '', '' Artha '', '' Dharma '' and '' Moksha ''. It is said that all beings seek ' (pleasure, physical or emotional) and ''artha'' (material wealth), but soon, with maturity, learn to govern these legitimate desires within the higher framework of ''dharma'' (righteousness). Of course, the only goal that is truly ultimate, whose attainment results in ultimate happiness, is ' (salvation), also known as '' Mukti '' (spiritual liberation), '' Samadhi '', '' Nirvana '', or escape from '' Samsara '' (the cycle of births and deaths). The four stages of life Ideally (though not feasible for most of today's lay Hindus), the human life is divided into four '' Ashrama s'' ("phases" or "stages"). They are '' Brahmacharya '', '' Grihastha '', '' Vanaprastha '' and '' Sanyasa ''. The first quarter of one's life, '' Brahmacharya '' ("meditation, or study of the ''Brahman''") is spent in Celibate , controlled, Sober and pure contemplation under a Guru , building up the mind for the realization of truth. '' Grihastha '' is the Householder 's stage, alternatively known as '' Samsara '', in which one marries and satisfies '' Kama (Hinduism) '' and '' Artha '' within one's married and '' Professional '' life. '' Vanaprastha '' is gradual detachment from the Material World , ostensibly giving over duties to one's children, spending more time in Contemplation of the Divine, and making holy Pilgrimage s. Finally, in '' Sanyasa '', the individual goes into seclusion, often envisioned as renunciation, to find the Divine through detachment from worldly life, and peacefully shed the body for the next life (or, for liberation). The four classes of society Hindu society has traditionally been divided into four classes, based on profession—the was a '' Kshatriya '' king before he became recognized as a great Brahmin sage. Valmiki , once a robber, became a great sage while Veda Vyasa was the son of a fisherwoman Sabhlok, Prem. "Glimpses of Vedic Metaphysics" . Page 21. A hymn from the Rig Veda says : "I am a bard, my father is a physician, my mother's job is to grind the corn......" :(Rig Veda 9.112.3). Though historians do not agree on the specific period, the social system later became hierarchical and based upon birth, leading to the evolution of several sub-castes (along with a class of outcastes — now known as Dalit s — outside the ') and the practice of social discrimination of the ' and ''Dalit'' classes. Thus, it evolved to form the Caste System as we know of today. However, Article 15 of the Indian Constitution prohibits discrimination on the basis of an individuals caste, while Article 17 prohibits practice of the social stigma of Untouchability "The Indian Constitution" . Part III (Articles 15 & 17). "Fundamental Rights". In contemporary India, caste differences are slowly disappearing with modernization, but occasional tensions and prejudices still remain. Nature of God The Vedas depict ') is seen as the unique Panentheistic Cosmic Spirit'''. ''Brahman'' may be viewed as bereft of personal attributes — '' Nirguna Brahman '' (except the qualities of infinite truth, infinite consciousness and infinite bliss), or with auspicious manifestable attributes — '' Saguna Brahman ''. The former view is called ''Parabrahman'' and the latter view is called ''Aparabrahman''. Perhaps the best word in Hinduism to represent the concept of ''God'' is '''' is viewed solely as '' Vishnu '' or '' Shiva ''—so their followers may attribute an anthropomorphic form to . is also called as '' Bhagavan '' in modern Hindi. Note that gender is not a distinguishing attribute: Ishvar is neither male nor female, neither "with gender" nor "without". The many deities revealing his universal form to The Hindu religion also believes in many celestial entities which are called '''' or celestial beings. #According to the philosophy of '' Advaita Vedanta '', and many verses of '' Bhagavad Gita '', the ' and the ''Vedas'', all the ''devas'' are simply the more mundane manifestations of the Supreme Lord ' in the human mind, and hence, ultimately, the different manifestations of the One ''Brahman'' that the human mind conceives.Arnold, Sir Edwin. "The Bhagvad Gita" . Chapter 7 (Page 30). In order to worship the formless '''', the devotee conceives an anthropomorphic form of God in his mind for the sake of worshipping Him with love and . #According to the philosophies of '' Nyaya '', '' Vaisheshika '', '' Yoga '', verses from the ''Shrutis'' and certain Shaivite and Vaishnavite thoughts, the ''devas'' are those immortal celestial beings who are subservient to the Supreme Lord '''', but are above human beings. Thus, they are the divine powers who preside over the forces of nature and act as a link between God and the mortal world. They all derive their power from God, under whose control they always work. # According to the philosophy of '' Mimamsa '', all the ''devas'' and ' are the sovereign rulers of the forces of nature and there is no one Supreme ' as their Lord. To do a desired action, the humans must please each or several of these ''devas'' by worshipping them with proper rituals. This kind of view could be regarded as purely Polytheistic . Although the later '''' retracted this view and accepted '''', this view is still held today by a substantial populace of today's Hindus. More precisely, the Hindu scriptures and most Shaivite and Vaishnavite thoughts regard the ''devas'' as a combination of the first two views; e.g., '' Krishna '' is regarded as ' to whom all the demigods are subservient, and simultaneously, all the demigods are seen as mundane manifestations of . The third view is not supported by the scriptures. Whatever it is, the ''devas'' (also called ') are an integral part of the colorful Hindu culture. The 33 early Vedic ''devas'' included '' Indra '', '' Agni '', '' Soma '', '' Varuna '', '' Mitra '', '' Savitri '', '' Rudra '', '' Prajapati '', '' Vishnu '', '' Aryaman '' and the '' Ashvin s''; important '''' were '' Sarasvati '', '' Ushas '' and '' Prithvi ''. ''Indra'' is traditionally called the king of the demigods. The later laud the Hindu Trinity of '' Brahma '', '' Vishnu '' and '' Shiva '', i.e., '' Trimurti '', signifying respectively the creative, ruling and destroying aspects of the same One God. Note that '''', '''' and ''Shiva'' are not regarded as ordinary ''devas'' but as ''''''''''. The '''' also laud other ''devas'' and '' Avatar '' such as '' Ganesha '', '' Hanumān '', '' Rama '', '' Krishna '', etc. '''', worshipped as the mother, include '' Lakshmi '' and most importantly, '' Durga '' and her forms such as '' Kali ''. DENOMINATIONS See Also: Hindu denominations Contemporary Hinduism is now divided into four major divisions, Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. Vaishnavism has 580 million followers, while Shaivism has 220 million followers. The primary differences are between the sects of Vaishnavism which conceives God as '' Vishnu '', and Shaivism which conceives God as '' Shiva ''. Vaishnavas make up the majority of Hindus in India. Shaktism worships a female divine or goddess '' Devi '' or alternatively (where it is viewed as a sub sect of Shaivism) as the power of ''Shiva'' personified. Smartism, in contrast, believes in all religions being the same and leading to a Pantheistic God. A number of movements have also given rise to sects like Swami Dayananda Saraswati 's '' Arya Samaj '' which condemns Iconolatry , veneration of multiple deities and focuses on the ''Vedas'' and the Vedic fire-sacrifices ('' Yajña ''). Each of the major denominations share Rituals , Beliefs , traditions and personal deities with each another, but each sect has a different philosophy on how to achieve life's ultimate goal ('' Moksha '', salvation) and on their concept of God ('' Ishvara ''). However, each denomination respects all others, and conflict of any kind is rare. In fact, many Hindus will not claim to belong to any denomination at all. HINDU SACRED TEXTS See Also: Hindu scripture The overwhelming majority of Hindu Sacred Texts are composed in the Sanskrit Language . Indeed, much of the Morphology and Linguistic philosophy inherent in the learning of Sanskrit is sometimes claimed to be inextricably linked to study of the Vedas and relevant Hindu scriptures. Shruti See Also: Śruti (scripture) with Sayana 's commentary.]] The ' (ब्राह्मण, not to be confused with ''Brahman'' or the caste brahmin) containing prose commentaries on the rituals, the '' Aranyaka '' (आरण्यक) containing the mystical explanations of the mantras, and the '' Upanishad '' (उपनिषद्) containing highly philosophical and metaphysical writings about the nature of, and the relationship between the soul ('' Atman '') and the '' Brahman ''. Each Veda also has various law books and ritual manuals loosely associated with it, like the '' Dharmashastra s'', ', etc., but most people do not consider them as an integral part of the ''Shruti'' or the Vedic literature. The ' set Hindu philosophy apart with its embrace of transcendent and yet multiple immanent forces that is subjective to each individual, seen by some as an identification of unity in diversity. Modern indology suggests that while early Hinduism is most reliant on the four Veda s, Classical Hinduism, from the '' Yoga '' and '' Vedanta '' to '' Tantra '' and '' Bhakti '' streams, was moulded around the '. The Vedas are full of mysticism and allegories. The very sound of the Vedic mantras is considered as "purifying" by many Hindus, hence the rigour in learning pronunciation. The rigorous oral tradition of transmitting the Vedas has helped in its preservation. ''See also: Shrauta '' Bhagavad Gita See Also: Bhagavad Gita ' (भागवद् गीता), often referred to as the ', is one of the more popular sacred texts of Hinduism. It is an integral part of the epic '' Mahabharata '', and contains philosophical sermons taught by '' Krishna '', an incarnation of '''', to the '''' princes just before a great war. Unlike the ''Vedas'', which are more Esoteric and intricate, the '''' is read by many practicing Hindus. It is a summary of the Vedic , Yogic , Vedantic and Tantric branches of Philosophy . The '''' is described as the essence of the ''Vedas''. Smriti See Also: Smriti The other Hindu texts form the latter category—the '''' (lit., "memory"), all of which laud the ''Vedas''; the most notable of them are the '''' which are texts related to rituals and worship and is dedicated to '''', ''Shiva'' and ''''. The ''Shruti'' takes precedence over the '''' in any matter of apparent mutual dispute. However, many Vaishnavites regard the '''' to be as authoritative as the ''Vedas''. ORIGINS AND SOCIETY Origins of Hinduism See Also: History of Hinduism in Tibet is regarded in many denominations as the spiritual center of the world.]] Historians agree Hinduism was fully formed around 1500–1300 BCE. Hinduism is one of the world's oldest major religions in existence. From a Hindu perspective, the '' Sanatana Dharma '' propounds eternal and universal principles with no beginning or end. The '' Purana s'' place Lord '’s birth at around 3100 BCE. '’s incarnation was preceded by Lord '' Rama ''’s, sometimes dated at over 5–6000 BCE, or even more than a million years ago in the Treta Yuga according to the '''' Epic. Many Hindus believe that their religious tradition was fully formed by the time of Lord '' Rama '', the seventh incarnation of Lord '' Vishnu ''. Modern Indology dates the roots of Hinduism to about 1500-1300 BCE, based on Linguistic and literary data from the Rig Veda, composed around 1500-1300 BCE, though it is accepted that they were transmitted orally from 1800-1500 BCE. This is connected to the Indo-Aryan Migration hypothesis, that posits an influx of Sanskrit-speaking Indo-Aryan peoples into North India at around that time. Most historians agree that Hinduism is the world's oldest religion. According to Hindu religious texts, their religion is many thousands of years old. The origin of collective Hindu thought cannot be ascribed to any single founder (though most of its later schools of philosophy and belief can be), or associated with a specific time or a single place of foundation. The Vedas, the earliest Hindu scriptures, are the compilation of spiritual laws and truths binding upon all of creation. It is believed that each Veda was revealed to enlightened sages, called '' Rishi s'', over a long period of time. Hinduism, along with Buddhism and Jainism , is regarded to be an '' Arya Dharma '', meaning, a noble religion. Vedic religion is the oldest living city in the world and is considered as one of the most sacred places of Modern Hinduism grew out of the knowledge described in the Vedas . The earliest of these, the '' Rigveda '' centers on worship of celestial spirits such as '' Indra '', '' Varuna '' and '' Agni '', and on the '' Soma '' ritual. The early Indo-Aryans would perform fire-sacrifices, called '' Yagna '' (यज्ञ), with the chanting of the Vedic mantras, but they built no temples, idols or icons. Probably animals were also sacrificed in larger '''', as claimed by Buddhist and Jain texts. The age and origins of the Vedas themselves are disputed, but it is clear that they were transmitted orally for several centuries, if not several millennia. They show strong similarities to the language and religion of the '' Avesta '' (of Zoroastrianism ), as well as more distantly to other Indo-European Languages and religions (see Indo-Aryan Migration ). The '' Rigveda '' deity ''Dyaus'', regarded as the father of the other deities, is linguistically cognate with Zeus —the king of the gods in Greek Mythology , Jovius (''gen. of'' Jupiter)—the king of the gods in Roman Mythology , and Ziu in Germanic mythology. Temples See Also: Mandir temple, the second richest religious shrine after the Vatican.]]Hindu temples inherited rich and ancient rituals and customs, and have occupied a special place in Hindu society. They are usually dedicated to a primary deity, called the presiding deity, and other subordinate deities associated with the main deity. However, some ''mandirs'' are dedicated to multiple deities. Most major temples are constructed as per the '' Agama '' and many are sites of Pilgrimage . For many Hindus, the four '''' (the abbots of the monasteries of Joshimath , Puri , Shringeri and Dwarka ) — four of the holiest pilgrimage centers — sometimes to which a fifth at Kanchi is also added) are viewed as the four highest Patriarch s of the Hindudom. Temples are a place for ''darshan'' (vision of the Divine), ' (statue in which divine presence is invoked) in conjunction with the singing or chanting of meditational prayer in the form of Mantra s. Devotional songs called '' Bhajan s'' (written primarily from the 14th-17th centuries), '' Kirtan '' (devotional songs), and '' Arti '' are sometimes sung in conjunction with the performance of the '. This rather organic system of devotion attempts to aid the individual in connecting with God through symbolic communion. Current geographic distribution See Also: Hinduism by country at one of the Hindu Holy city Prayaga (also known as Allahabad) ( India ).]] Of the total Hindu population of the world, approx. 900 million of them live in (558,342) 2001 Great Britain National Statistics . HINDU PHILOSOPHY: THE SIX VEDIC SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT See Also: Hindu philosophy The six ' or orthodox schools (accepting the authority of the Vedas) of Hindu philosophy are '' Nyaya '', '' Vaisheshika '', '' Samkhya '', '' Yoga '', '' Purva Mimamsa '' (also simply called '), and '' Vedanta '' (also called '' Vedanta ''). The non-Vedic schools are called '''', or heterodox, and refer to Buddhism , Jainism and '' Lokayata ''. The schools that continue to enrich Hinduism today are '' Purva Mimamsa '', '' Yoga '', and '' Vedanta ''. See Hindu Philosophy for a discussion of the historical significance of '' Samkhya '', '' Nyaya '', and '' Vaisheshika ''. Purva Mimamsa See Also: Purva Mimamsa The main objective of '' Purva Mimamsa '' school (also simply called '''') was to firmly establish the authority of the Vedas. Consequently, this school's most valuable contribution to Hinduism was its formulation of the rules of interpretation of Vedas. Its adherents believed that true knowledge is self-evidently proven, and tried to find out the basis of the Vedic ritualism through reasoning. This school of thought forms the basis of Modern Hindu ritualism (strictly followed only by a minority), which believes in the inherent power of rituals. Yoga See Also: Yoga , which began to be codified between 1500 and 1200 BCE.]] ''Yoga'' means ''union'' and is generally interpreted as union with the Divine, or integration of body, mind, and spirit. Its goal is '' Moksha '', or '' Samadhi ''. It, like the '' Upanishad s'', seeks liberation through the disunion of the spirit ('' Purusha '') and the nature ('' Prakriti ''), through meditational, physical and spiritual practices, along with a firm belief in God ('' Ishvara ''). The '' Upanishad s'', sage '' Patanjali ''’s '' Yoga Sutra '' and the '' Bhagavad Gita '' are indispensable literature to the study of ''Yoga''; they elaborate on '' Raja Yoga '', '' Bhakti Yoga '', '' Karma Yoga '' and '' Jnana Yoga ''. Of these, the '' Yoga Sutra '' is essentially a compilation and systematization of meditational ''Yoga'' philosophy. Uttara Mimamsa: The Three Schools of Vedanta The Uttara ("later") Mimamsa school is perhaps one of the cornerstone movements of Hinduism and certainly was responsible for a new wave of philosophical and meditative inquiry, renewal of faith, and cultural reform. Primarily associated with the Upanishad s and their commentary by Badarayana , the Vedanta Sutra s, Vedanta thought split into three groups, initiated by the thinking and writing of Adi Sankara . Most Hindu thought today in some way relates to changes affected by Vedantic thought (e.g., ISKCON , which follows '''' Vedantic philosophy), which focused on meditation, morality and centeredness on the one Self rather than on rituals and meaningless societal distinctions like Caste . See Vedanta for greater depth. Pure Monism: Advaita Vedanta ''Main article: Advaita Vedanta '' Advaita literally means "not two"; thus this is what we refer to as a monistic (or non-dualistic) system, which emphasises oneness. Its consolidator was Shankara (788-820). Adi Shankara expounded his theories largely based on previous teachings of the Upanishad s and his own Guru Gaudapada . In this philosophy, when a human being tries to know the Cosmic Spirit (''Brahman'') through his mind, ''Brahman'' becomes the '''Supreme Lord''' (''''), under the effect of an illusionary power of ''Brahman'' called '' Maya (Hinduism) ''. An analogy is given that when the reflection of ''Brahman'' falls upon the mirror of '''', its image is seen as ''''. The material universe and the appearance of the single Atman to be seen as innumerable individual souls are also because of ''''. Note that God is still perfect and untouched by the profanity of his divine power '''', just as a magician is not surprised by his own magic. In this level of reality—the pragmatic level, God creates and rules the world with the help of his ''''. True knowledge of the ''Brahman'' ('''') is the only way to liberation; when the curtain of '''' gets removed, the person realizes that there is absolutely no difference between the individual soul ('''') and ''Brahman''—which is the transcendental level of reality. However, good ''Karma'' and ''Bhakti'' are recognized as great help in attaining true knowledge. Adi Shankara denounced Caste and meaningless Ritual as foolish, and in his own charismatic manner, exhorted the true devotee to meditate on God's love and apprehend truth. Qualified monism: Vishistadvaita Bhakti -Vedanta See Also: Vishistadvaita ''), ''chit'' (soul) and ''achit'' (matter). ' is the only independent reality, while souls and matter are dependent on God ' for their existence. Because of this qualification of Ultimate reality, ''''’s system is known as qualified non-dualism. '' Karma '' along with '' Bhakti '' for is the true path for liberation. Dualism: Dvaita Bhakti See Also: Dvaita Like ', '' Madhva '' (1238 - 1317) identified God with ', but his view of reality was purely dualistic in that he understood a fundamental differentiation between the ultimate Godhead and the individual soul, and the system is therefore called ''Dvaita'' (dualistic) ''''. '' Bhakti '' is the only way for liberation. ALTERNATIVE CULTURES OF WORSHIP The Bhakti schools See Also: Bhakti is the son of Shiva and Parvati (pictured left). He is widely worshipped as '' Vignesh '', the remover of obstacles.]] The '' Bhakti '' (Devotional) school takes its name from the Hindu term that signifies a blissful, selfless and overwhelming devotion of God as the beloved Father, Mother, Child, or whatever relationship finds appeal in the devotee's heart. The philosophy of ''Bhakti'' seeks to relate to the personal form of God. Seen as a form of '' Yoga '', or union, it seeks to interlink the self with God, since consciousness of the body and limited mind as self is seen to be a limiting factor in spiritual realization. Essentially, it is God who effects all change, who is the source of all works, who acts through the devotee as love and light. 'Sins' and evil-doings of the devotee are said to fall away of their own accord through the devotion of God. The '' Bhakti '' movements rejuvenated Hinduism through their intense expression of devotion and their responsiveness to the emotional and philosophical needs of India. Tantra See Also: Tantra ''Tantra'' is one of the least understood areas of Hinduism — often perceived as free sex associated with religion. ''Tantra'' means to stretch and expand. It also means a weaving. The word originally referred only to sacred texts or Tantras. A ''mantra'' is a hymn or sacred words associated with a deity. A ''mantra'' is associated with a ''Yantra'', which is a mystical diagram. ''Tantras'' can be divided into two paths - The right hand path (also known as ' or ') and the Left hand path (''''). Extolled as a short-cut to self-realization and spiritual enlightenment by some, left-hand tantric rites are often rejected as dangerous by most orthodox Hindus. IMPORTANT THEMES AND SYMBOLS IN HINDUISM Tilaka (symbol on forehead or between eyebrows) See Also: Tilaka The ''tilaka'' (or ''tilak'') is a mark worn on the forehead and other parts of the body for spiritual reasons. It is believed to symbolize the need to cultivate supramental consciousness, which is achieved by opening the mystic ''third eye''. Traditionally tilaka is adorned, in one form or the other, by all Hindus (as a mark of faith of the particular tradition they belong to) and married women (to denote marriage and auspiciousness). In the modern context, it is most commonly seen as a decorative dot (or '''') worn by women on the forehead. Hindus stress meditation to acquire knowledge beyond the mind and body, a trait that is often associated with the ascetic deity '''', a group of three horizontal lines for '' Shiva ''. It is not uncommon for some to meld both in an amalgam marker signifying ''Hari-Hara'' (''Vishnu-Shiva'' indissoluble). Ahimsa (non-violence), vegetarian diet and the cow Ahimsa is a concept that advocates non-violence and a respect for all forms of life — human as well as animal. The term ''ahimsa'' first appears in the Upanishad s, and is the first of the five ''Yamas'', or eternal vows/restraints in Raja Yoga . In part at least, it has also been influenced from the teachings of Buddhism and Jainism . A large section of Hindus embrace vegetarianism in a bid to respect higher forms of life. While vegetarianism is not a dogma or requirement, it is recommended as a and Garlic , as they are regarded as Rajasic /tamasic. Those Hindus who do eat meat (usually chicken, goat and fish) predominantly abstain from Beef . Some even avoid the use of cow's leather products. This is possibly because the largely pastoral Vedic people, and subsequent generations, relied so heavily on the cow for milk and dairy products, tilling of fields and fuel for fertilizer, that its status as a 'caretaker' led to identifying it as an almost maternal figure (hence the term ''gau mata'', or ''Cow Mother''). While most Hindus do not actually worship the cow (though many Venerate her), it still holds an honored place in Hindu society — as the best representative of the benevolence of all animals on man. Hindu symbolism Among the most revered symbols in Hinduism, three are quintessentially a part of its culture, and representative of its general ethos: ( Om )]] ]] ''Aum'' (or Om, '''ॐ''') is the sacred symbol of Hinduism, and is prefixed and sometimes suffixed to all Hindu Mantra s and prayers. It contains a deep symbolic message of the divine primordial vibration of the Universe, representing all existence, encompassing all of nature into the ''One Ultimate Reality''. This symbol is commonly found on necklaces worn by Hindus. Swastika ('''卐''') is an Arya , or ''noble and auspicious'', symbol. It stands for Satya , truth, and stability within the power of Brahma or, alternatively, of Surya , the sun. Its rotation in four directions has been used to represent many ideas, but primarily describes the four directions, the four Vedas and their harmonious whole. It has been used predominantly in Hinduism since the early Vedic Culture , and is still widespread in the Indian Subcontinent . Many other cultures continue to hold it as auspicious, in spite of the recent association with Nazism , which used a clockwise, tilted version of this symbol called a ''Hakenkreuz''. The Mandala of the hexagram, somewhat resembling the Star Of David , is an archetypal symbol for the sacred union of opposite energies. Formed by the intertwining of the "fire" and "water" triangles (the male "blade" and the female "chalice") this symbol represents the masculine and feminine principles in perfect union. Murtis (icons) See Also: Murti , known as the Nataraja , is often said to be the supreme statement of Hindu art]] Worship of God (the unique truth that can be seen by humans in any manifestation) is often represented symbolically through the aid of icons ('''') which are conduits for the devotee's consciousness, markers for the human mind that signify the ineffable and illimitable nature of the power and grandeur of God . They are symbols of the greater principle and according to the understanding of the worshipper, the concept or entity is sometimes presumed to be present in them (in monotheistic doctrines) and sometimes not (in monistic doctrines). It bears mention that ''Shiva'' is almost always worshipped as a pillar-like stone called '' Lingam ''. Some interpret the term ''lingam'' as a Phallus due to its shape and certain Puranic stories, but actually, this Sanskrit word means ''any'' sign, symbol, mark or badge in general. Others interpret it as a mystic column (''stambha'') trying to represent the infiniteness of ''Shiva''. In a Hindu Temple , the divine spirit/energy is commonly invoked into the Murtis at the time of their consecration. Veneration of such Murtis is done everyday in a Temple . Most practicing Hindus also maintain a Puja room like a Temple in their homes for worship and meditation. The icons could be two-dimensional paintings or three-dimensional statues. Mantra See Also: Mantra Reciting Mantra s or incantations is a general practice in Hindu rituals. Many mantras are from the Vedas. Much of ''mantra yoga'', as it is called, is done through ''japa'' (repetition, usually through a Rosary ). Mantras are chanted, through their meaning, sound, and chanting style, to help meditational focus for the Sadhaka (practitioner). They can also be used to aid in expression of love for the deity, another facet of Bhakti Yoga akin to the understanding of the Murti . They often give courage in exigent times and serve to help 'invoke' one's inner spiritual strength. Indeed, Mahatma Gandhi 's dying words were a two-word Mantra to the Lord Rama : ''"Hé Ram!"'. The most revered mantra in Hinduism is the famed Gayatri Mantra of the Rig Veda 3.62.10. Many Hindus to this day, in a tradition that has continued unbroken for at least 3,000 years, perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river (especially the Ganga / Ganges ) while chanting this mantra. Sanskrit is mostly used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals in the forms of Hymns and Mantras . CRITICISM See Also: Criticism of Hinduism Hinduism is criticized based on current or past regressive social customs such as Dowry , Sati and Casteism . Hindus would also argue that it is unfair to strictly use ancient scriptures to denigrate modern Hindu society. Hindu scriptures are not unique in containing presecriptions that are not amenable to modern societal practices, e.g., it can be argued that both Islam and Christianity allow the inhuman practice of Slavery . Furthermore, the critics do not understand that the Hindus never pay great importance to the literal meaning of their scriptures, but rather, to the metaphorical and philosophical meanings hidden behind those words. Non-Hindu (Abrahamic) monotheists have criticised Hinduism as Idolatry and pure polytheism, and its mythology and iconography as immoral. Such a judgement betrays Selection Bias , since Hinduism has prominent aspects of monotheism, Monism and Monistic Theism . Some have also criticised the religion because of its association with the rising ideology of Hindu nationalism, called Hindutva . NOTES REFERENCES #R. Balasubramanian, "Advaita Vedanta". ''History of Science, Philosophy, and Culture in Indian Civilization'', vol. II, part 2, 2000. # Mascaró, Juan (trans.). 2003. ''The Bhagavad Gita''. Penguin Classics. 160-page revised edition (originally published in 1962), with preface by author and introduction by Dr. Simon Brodbeck. {Link without Title} # Chaudhuri, Nirad C. 1979. ''Hinduism: A Religion to Live By''. Chatto & Windus, London. ISBN 0-7011-2225-0 # Easwaran, Eknath (trans.). 1988. ''The Upanishads''. Penguin Arkana. # (Article on) Rigveda. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia # Rigveda (English trans. by Griffith) # "Hinduism" on Microsoft Encarta Online |
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