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The existence of a gender difference does not identify whether the trait is due to Nature Or Environment . Some traits are obviously innate (for example, reproductive organs), others obviously environmental (for example, given names), while for others the relationship is either multi-cause or unknown. Also, a difference that is true for the average may not be true in individual cases. For example, men are taller than women on average, but an individual woman may be taller than an individual man. PHYSICAL DIFFERENCES
For information about how males and females develop throughout the lifespan, see Sexual Differentiation . HEALTH Women live longer than men in most countries (notable exceptions are Afghanistan and Pakistan ). The gender gap is however decreasing in many countries as more women take up unhealthy practices that used to be masculine like smoking and drinking, and more men practice healthier living. The World Health Organization (WHO) has produced a number of reports on gender and health . The following trends are shown:
Certain conditions are Sex-linked , in that the gene is carried on the X chromosome. In such cases, the condition will be far more common in males than in females. Examples of sex-linked conditions are Hemophilia and Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy . PSYCHOLOGY Studies of psychological gender differences are controversial and subject to error. Many small-scale studies report differences that are not repeated in larger studies. Self-report questionnaires are subject to bias, particularly if the subjects are told that the questionnaire is testing for gender roles. In one large scale meta-analysis, most cognitive abilities and psychological traits showed little or no average difference between the sexes . Nevertheless, certain trends can be found:
Systemizing and empathizing Simon Baron-Cohen claims that, in general, men are better at systematizing (the desire to analyze and explore systems and rules) and that women are better at empathizing (the ability to identify with other people’s feelings). More males than females are diagnosed with Autism and Asperger Syndrome . According to Cohen, since autistic and Asperger individuals are very high in systemizing and very low in empathizing, they are examples of an "extreme male brain" . Intelligence Most studies show no significant difference in the average IQ for men and women. However, on average men perform better on tests of spatial and mathematical ability, while women perform better on tests of verbal ability and memory. Also, men's IQ has greater variance, that is, there are more men than women in the very high and very low IQ groups, with women's scores more concentrated around the average. ''See'' Sex And Intelligence . Happiness A commentary released by Pew Research Center addressed some questions about the way men and women view their lives :
Possible causes There are several possible explanations for psychological gender differences. From the viewpoint of Gender Role theory, boys and girls learn the appropriate behaviour and attitudes from the family and overall culture they grow up with. From the viewpoint of Evolutionary Psychology , modern humans have inherited natural traits that were adaptive in a prehistoric environment, including traits that had different advantages for males versus females. These are not mutually exclusive viewpoints; it is possible that gender differences are partially innate but they are reinforced and exaggerated by the environment. ECONOMICS In many countries, there is a gender Income Disparity which favors males even when doing similar jobs in the Labor Market . In most societies, men hold more positions of power and a greater proportion of wealth (see Glass Ceiling ). Differences in work preferences may lead to an Inequality Of Income . Employment traditionally attracts more women than men]] According to a 2004 report by the US department of labor :
These figures will be different for other parts of the world. The majority of occupational deaths occur among men. In one U.S. study, 93% of deaths on the job involved men, with a death rate approximately 11 times higher than women. The industries with the highest death rates are mining, agriculture/forestry/fishing, and construction, all of which tend to employ more men than women . Parental leave Many countries, including Mexico, India, Germany, Brazil, and Australia require companies to grant 12-week Maternity Leave for working women at full pay. Paternity Leave is not available to the same extent, although some countries such as Sweden are trying to close this disparity. Insurance Insurance companies often charge different rates for men and women:
Consumer behaviour Price Discrimination can favor either men or women. For example, some night clubs offer discounts or free entry for women, while some hairdressers offer cheaper haircuts for men. According to a 2000 report, women purchase or influence the purchase of 80 percent of all Consumer Goods and influence 80% of health-care decisions . EDUCATION Worldwide, men more likely to be Literate , with 100 men considered literate for every 88 women. In some countries the difference is even greater, for example, in Bangladesh only 62 women are literate for every 100 men . In an OECD study of 43 developed countries, 15-year-old girls were ahead of boys in literacy skills and were more confident than boys about getting high-income jobs . As of October 2005, women made up 57% of all college students in the United States . This is repeated in other countries; for example, women make up 58% of admissions in the UK and 60% in Iran . CRIME Men are more likely to be incarcerated (see Sex And Crime ). However, this gender gap is decreasing. Women are more likely to get Rape d than men. With the exception of rape, men are more likely to be victims of Violent Crime . INTERNET USE In an American study, the percentage of men using the Internet was ahead of the percentage of women, although this difference disappeared in the under 30s. Men log on more often, spend more time online, and are more likely to be Broadband users. Women are more likely to E-mail friends and family about a variety of topics. Men are more likely to use the Internet to pay bills, participate in auctions, and for recreation such as downloading music and videos. Men and women are equally likely to use the Internet for shopping and banking. DATING, MARRIAGE, AND FAMILY Dating and marriage customs are dependant on culture and differ greatly across countries and even in subcultures within the same country. For example, many marriages in India are Arranged , whereas in the United States most people choose their own partners. In most societies, men are generally expected to play the more active role in the early stages of Courtship , for example in asking the woman for a date. Age at first marriage Men are older, on average, when they marry (see Age At First Marriage ). Homosexuality The Demographics Of Sexual Orientation in any population is difficult to establish with reasonable accuracy. However, most surveys find that a greater proportion of men than women report that they are exclusively homosexual. Numbers of single people In the USA, single men are greatly outnumbered by single women at a ratio of 100 single women to every 86 single men . This very much depends on age group, with 118 single men per 100 single women in their 20s, versus 33 single men to 100 single women over 65 . The numbers are different in other countries. For example, China has many more young men than young women, and this disparity is expected to increase. In war-torn regions such as Chechnya, women may greatly outnumber men. Online dating There are more men than women in Online Dating websites. According to a November 2003 study by Jupiter Research, men are four times more likely than women to subscribe to an online dating site and twice as likely to browse, post, or respond to a profile . Choosing a partner In a cross-cultural study by David Buss , men and women were asked to rank certain traits in order of importance in a long-term partner. Both men and women ranked "kindness" and "intelligence" as the two most important factors. Men valued beauty and youth more highly than women, while women valued financial and social status more highly than men. Childcare and housework Typically, women spend more time than men doing Childcare and Household Chore s (see Gender Role ). CLOTHING In Western societies, Skirts And Dresses and High-heeled Shoe s are seen as women's clothing, while Necktie s are generally worn by men. Trousers were once seen as exclusively male clothing but nowadays are worn by both sexes. Male clothes are generally more comfortable, but a wider range of clothing styles is available for females. Males are typically allowed to Bare Their Chests in a greater variety of public places. Other societies have different norms for clothing:
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