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Decolonization is the process by which a Colony gains its independence from a colonial power, a process opposite to Colonization . Decolonization could be achieved by attaining independence, integrating with the administering power or another state, or establishing a "free association" status. The UN has stated that in the process of decolonization there is no alternative to the principle of self-determination. Decolonization may involve Peaceful Negotiation and/or violent revolt by the native population. Decolonization in the strict sense is distinct from the break-up of traditional Empire s, and in modern academic discourse the period of decolonization generally refers to two major waves of independence from European colonial rule: From the late 18th Century up through 19th Century decolonization in the Americas occurred, beginning with American colonists' Revolt against British rule in the present-day United States , and continuing through the collapse of the Spanish and Portuguese Empire s in Latin America . In the 20th and 21st Centuries "decolonization" usually refers to the achievement of independence by the various Europe an colonies and Protectorate s in Asia and Africa following World War II . This conforms with an intellectual movement known as Post-Colonialism . A particularly active period of decolonization occurred between 1945 to 1960 , beginning with the independence of Pakistan and India from Britain in 1947 . METHODS AND STAGES Decolonization is a political process, frequently involving violence. In extreme circumstances, there is a War Of Independence sometimes following on a Revolution . More often, there is a dynamic cycle where negotiations fail, minor disturbances ensue resulting in suppression by the police and military forces, escalating into more violent Revolt s that lead to further negotiations until independence is granted. In rare cases, the actions of the native population are characterized by Non-violence , India being an example of this, and the violence comes as active suppression from the occupying forces or as political opposition from forces representing minority local communities who feel threatened by the prospect of independence. For example, there was a war of independence in French Indochina , while in some countries in French West Africa (excluding the Maghreb Countries ) decolonization resulted from a combination of insurrection and negotiation. The process is only complete when the De Facto government of the newly independent country is recognized as the De Jure sovereign State by the community of nations. Independence is difficult to achieve without encouragement and practical support from one or more external parties. The motives for giving such aid are varied: nations of the same ethnic and/or religious stock may sympathize with oppressed groups, or a strong nation may attempt to destabilize a colony as a tactical move to weaken a rival or enemy colonizing power or to create space for its own sphere of influence (e.g. the American Monroe Doctrine for the entire Western Hemisphere ). As world opinion became more pro-emancipation following World War I , there was an ''institutionalized collective effort'' to advance the cause of emancipation through the League Of Nations . Under Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations, a number of Mandate s were created. The expressed intention was to prepare these countries for self-government, but the reality was merely a redistribution of control over the former colonies of the defeated powers, mainly Germany and the Ottoman Empire . This reassignment work continued through the United Nations , with a similar system of trust territories created to adjust control over both former colonies and mandated territories administered by the nations defeated in World War II, including Japan. In referenda, some colonized populations have chosen to retain their colonial status, e.g. Gibraltar and the Falkland Islands . Equally, some colonial powers have promoted decolonization in order to shed the financial, military and other burdens that tend to grow in those colonies where the regimes have become more benign. Empire s have expanded and contracted throughout history but, in several respects, the modern phenomenon of decolonization has produced different outcomes. Now, when states surrender both the ''de facto'' rule of their colonies and their ''de jure'' claims to such rule, the ex-colonies are generally not absorbed by other powers. Further, the former colonial powers have in most cases not only continued existing, but have also maintained their status as Power s, retaining strong economic and cultural ties with their former colonies. Through these ties, former colonial powers have ironically maintained a significant proportion of the previous benefits of their empires, but with smaller costs — thus, despite frequent resistance to demands for decolonization, the outcomes have satisfied the colonizers' self-interests. Decolonization is rarely achieved through a single historical act, but rather progresses through one or more stages of emancipation, each of which can be offered or fought for: these can include the introduction of elected representatives (advisory or voting; minority or majority or even exclusive), degrees of autonomy or self-rule. Thus, the final phase of decolonization may in fact concern little more than handing over responsibility for foreign relations and security, and soliciting ''de jure'' recognition for the new Sovereignty . But, even following the recognition of statehood, a degree of continuity can be maintained through bilateral treaties between now equal governments involving practicalities such as military training, mutual protection pacts or even a garrison and/or military bases. DECOLONIZATION IN BROAD SENSE Stretching the notion further, ''internal decolonization'' can occur within a sovereign state. Thus, the expansive United States created ''territories'', destined to colonize conquered lands bordering the existing states, and once their development proved successful (often involving new geographical splits) allowed them to petition statehood within the federation, granting not external independence but internal equality as 'sovereign' constutuent members of the federal Union. Even in a state which legally doesn't colonize any of its 'integral' parts, real inequality often causes the politically dominant component - often the largest and/or most populous part (such as Russia within the formally federal USSR as earlier in the czar's empire), or the historical conqueror (such as Austria, the homelands of the ruling Habsburg dynasty, within an empire of mainly Slavonic 'minorities' from Silesia to the shifting Ottoman border)- to be perceived, at least subjectively, as a colonizer in all but name; hence the dismemberment of such a 'prison of peoples' is perceived as decolonization ''de facto''. To complicate matters even further, this may coincide with another element. Thus, the three Baltic republics - Estonia , Latvia and Lithuania - argue that they, in contrary with other constituant SSRs, could not be granted independence at the dismemberment of the Soviet Union because they never joined, but were militarily annexed by Stalin, and thus had been illegally colonized, including massive deportations of their nationals and uninvited immigration of ethnic Russians and other soviet nationalities. Even in other Post-Soviet States which had formally acceded, most ethnic Russians were so much identified with the Soviet 'colonization' that they were made to feel so unwelcome that they migrated back to Russia. HISTORY OF DECOLONIZATION In this chronological overview, not every date is indisputably the decisive moment. Often, the final phase, independence, is mentioned here, though there may be years of autonomy before, e.g. as an Associated State under the British crown. For such details, see each national history. Furthermore, note that some cases have been included that were not strictly colonized but rather protectorate, co-dominium, lease... Changes subsequent to decolonization are usually ''not'' included; nor is the Dissolution of the Soviet Union . 18th and 19th centuries Between the World Wars and during the second Western European colonial powers The end of the Great War marked the zenith of European colonization. It also marked the acceleration of the trends that would end it. The extraordinary material demands of the conflict had spread economic change across the world (notably Inflation ), and the associated social pressures of "war imperialism" created both Peasant unrest and a burgeoning Middle Class . Economic Growth created stakeholders with their own demands, while Racial issues meant these people clearly stood apart from the colonial middle-class and had to form their own group. The start of mass Nationalism , as a concept and practice, would fatally undermine the ideologies of imperialism. There were, naturally, other factors, from agrarian change (and disaster – French Indochina ), changes or developments in Religion ( Buddhism in Burma , Islam in the Dutch East Indies , marginally people like John Chilembwe in Nyasaland ), and the impact of the depression of the 1930s . The Great Depression , despite the concentration of its impact on the industrialized world, was exceptionally damaging in the rural colonies. Agricultural prices fell much harder and faster than those of industrial goods, from around 1925 until the return of War the colonies suffered. The colonial powers concentrated on domestic issues, Protectionism and Tariff s, disregarding the damage done to international Trade flows. The colonies, almost all primary " Cash Crop " producers, lost the majority of their Export income and were forced away from the "open" complementary colonial economies to "closed" systems. While some areas returned to Subsistence Farming ( British Malaya ) others diversified (India, West Africa ), and some began to industrialise. These economies would not fit the colonial strait-jacket when efforts were made to renew the links. Further, the European-owned and -run Plantation s proved more vulnerable to extended Deflation than native Capitalist s, reducing the dominance of "white" Farmer s in colonial economies and making the European Government s and investors of the 1930s co-opt Indigenous elites — despite the implications for the future. The efforts at colonial reform also hastened their end — notably the move from non-interventionist Collaborative systems towards directed, disruptive, direct management to drive economic change. The creation of genuine Bureaucratic government boosted the formation of indigenous Bourgeoisie . This was especially true in the British Empire , which seemed less capable (or less ruthless) in controlling political nationalism. Driven by pragmatic demands of budgets and manpower the British made deals with the nationalist elites. They dealt with the white Dominion s, retained strategic resources at the cost of reducing direct control in Egypt , and made numerous reforms in the '' Raj '', culminating in the Government Of India Act (1935). Africa was a very different case from Asia between the wars. Tropical Africa was not fully drawn into the colonial system before the end of the 19th century, excluding only the complexities of the Union Of South Africa (busily introducing Racial Segregation from 1924 and thus catalysing the anti-colonial political growth of half the continent) and the Empire Of Ethiopia . Colonial controls ranged between extremes. Economic growth was often curtailed. There were no indigenous nationalist groups with widespread popular support before 1939 . The Soviet Union In accordance to Molotov-Ribbentrop pact, the Soviet Union was able to annex Lithuania , Latvia , Estonia , Galitsia and parts of Finland , incorporating them into the national territory of the Soviet Union by either making them new constituent Soviet republics or adding the territory to existing ones. Many russians migrated to some of these regions, so that by 1990, natives made up only about 50% of the population of the Baltic States . Following World War II , Germany lost its territories east of Oder and Neisse rivers to Poland , which gained Pomerania , Silesia and West Prussia , Czechoslovakia , which regained Sudetenland and Soviet Union, which took East Prussia . Local Germans were expulsed, while the population of the respective countries colonized the areas. The Americas At end of the Spanish-American War at the end of the 19th century, the United States Of America held several colonial territories seized from Spain , among them the Philippines and Puerto Rico . Although the U.S. had initially embarked upon a policy of colonization of these territories (and had fought to suppress local "insurgencies" there, such as in the Philippine-American War ), by the 1930s the U.S. policy for the Philippines had changed toward the direction of eventual self-government. Following the invasion and occupation of the Philippines by Japan during World War II , the Philippines gained independence peacefully from the United States. However, other U.S. colonies, such as Puerto Rico, did not gain full independence, despite active independence movements and occasional insurgencies. Puerto Rico achieved self-government in 1952 and became a commonwealth associated to the US. Puerto Rico was taken out of the UN list of non-sovereign territories in 1953 through resolution 748. Still, Puerto Rico is not a sovereign state and has a recognized right to self-determination. Japan As the only Asian nation to become a colonial power during the modern era, Japan had gained several substantial colonial concessions (such as Taiwan and Korea , among others) in east Asia. Pursuing a colonial policy comparable to those of European powers, Japan settled significant populations of ethnic Japanese in its colonies while simultaneously suppressing indigenous ethnic populations by enforcing the learning and use of the Japanese Language in schools and public interaction, and attempting to eradicate the use of Korean and Chinese among the indigenous peoples, for example. World War II gave Japan occasion to conquer vast swaths of Asia, sweeping into China and seizing the European colonies of Vietnam , Hong Kong , the Philippines , Burma and Indonesia (among others), albeit only for the duration of the war. Following its surrender to the Allies in 1945, on the other hand, Japan was deprived of all its colonies; Japan further claims that the southern Kuril Islands are a small portion of its own national territory, colonized by the Soviet Union . From World War II to the present UN RESOLUTION 1514 A milestone of major importance was ''Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples'', adopted by the United Nations General Assembly Resolution 1514 (XV), on 14 December 1960 . Eighty-nine countries voted in favour, none voted against, and nine abstained: Australia , Belgium , Dominican Republic , France , Portugal , Spain , Union Of South Africa , United Kingdom , and United States . These nine included all the major colonial powers. In 2000 , on the occasion of the 40th anniversary of Resolution 1514, UN General Assembly adopted Resolution 55/146 that declared 2001–2010 the ''Second International Decade for the Eradication of Colonialism''. POST-COLONIAL ORGANIZATIONS Due to a common history and culture, former colonial powers created institutions which more loosely associated their former colonies. Membership is voluntary, and in some cases can be revoked if a member state loses some objective criteria (usually a requirement for democratic governance). The organizations serve cultural, economic, and political purposes between the associated countries, although no such organization has become politically prominent as an entity in its own right. DIFFERING PERSPECTIVES There is quite a bit of controversy over decolonization. The end goal tends to be universally regarded as good, but there has been much debate over the best way to grant full independence. Decolonization and political instability Some say the post–World War II decolonization movement was too rushed, especially in Africa , and resulted in the creation of unstable regimes in the newly independent countries. Others argue that this instability is largely the result of problems from the colonial period, including arbitrary nation-state borders, lack of training of local populations and disproportional Economy . Economic effects John Kenneth Galbraith argues that the post-WWII decolonization was brought about for Economic reasons. In ''A Journey Through Economic Time'', he writes, "The engine of economic well-being was now within and between the advanced industrial countries. Domestic Economic Growth — as now measured and much discussed — came to be seen as far more important than the erstwhile colonial trade... The economic effect in the United States from the granting of independence to the Philippines was unnoticeable. The departure of India and Pakistan made small economic difference in Britain . Dutch economists calculated that the economic effect from the loss of the great Dutch empire in Indonesia was compensated for by a couple of years or so of domestic post-war economic growth. The end of the colonial era is celebrated in the history books as a triumph of national aspiration in the former colonies and of benign good sense on the part of the colonial powers. Lurking beneath, as so often happens, was a strong current of economic interest — or in this case, disinterest." Part of the reason for the lack of economic impact felt by the colonizer upon the release of the colonized was that costs and benefits were not eliminated, but shifted. The colonizer no longer had the burden of obligation, financial or otherwise, to their colony. The colonizer continued to be able to obtain cheap goods and labor from the former colonies. Financial, political and military pressure could still be used to achieve goals desired by the colonizer. The most obvious difference is the ability of the colonizer to disclaim responsibility for the colonized. Settled populations Decolonization is not an easy matter in colonies where a large population of settlers lives, particularly if they have been there for several generations. This population, in general, may have to be repatriated, often losing considerable property. For instance, the decolonization of Algeria by France was particularly uneasy due to the large European and Sephardic Jewish population (see also '' Pied Noir ''), which largely evacuated to France when Algeria became independent. In Zimbabwe , former Rhodesia , president Robert Mugabe has, starting in the 1990s , targeted white farmers and forcibly seized their property. In some cases, decolonization is hardly possible or impossible because of the importance of the settler population or where the indigenous population is now in the minority; such is the case of the British population of the Cayman Islands and the Russian population of Kazakhstan , as well as the settler societies of North America. Cold-war era The Soviet Union sought to effect the abolishment of colonial governance by Western countries, either by direct subversion of Western-leaning or -controlled governments or indirectly by influence of political leadership and support. Many of the revolutions of this time period were inspired or influenced in this way. The conflicts in Vietnam , Nicaragua , Congo , and Sudan , among others, have been characterized as such. Communist and Socialist opposition to colonialism Most Soviet leaders expressed the Marxist-Leninist view that Imperialism was the height of Capitalism , and generated a class-stratified society. It followed, then, that Soviet leadership would encourage independence movements in colonized territories, especially as the Cold War progressed. Because so many of these wars of independence expanded into general Cold War conflicts, the U.S. also supported several such independence movements in opposition to Soviet interests. During the Vietnam War, Communist countries supported anti-colonialist movements in various countries still under colonial administration through propaganda, developmental and economic assistance, and in some cases military aid. Notably among these were the support of armed rebel movements by Cuba in Angola , and the Soviet Union (as well as the People's Republic Of China ) in Vietnam . SEE ALSO ''Politics:''
''Philosophy, theory & literature:''
''By continent:'' FURTHER READING
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