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In the latter cases " Native-language Instruction " may be a clearer definition. EXAMPLES ACROSS THE WORLD Australia In Australia there are some schools with bilingual programs which cater for children speaking community languages other than English. Baldauf (2005) explains that these programs are now beginning to benefit from more government support. Bilingual education for Indigenous students, however, has only received intermittent official backing. In the Northern Territory, for example, bilingual programs for Indigenous students were begun with Federal Government support in the early 1970s but by December 1998 the Northern Territory Government had announced its decision to shift $3 million away from the 21 bilingual programs to a Territory-wide program teaching English as a second language. Within 12 months though the government had softened its position. Most bilingual programs were allowed to continue under the guise of two-way education. Then on 24 August 2005 the Minister for Employment, Education and Training announced that the government would be "revitalising bi-lingual education" at 15 Community Education Centres: Alekerange, Angurugu, Borroloola, Gapuwiyak, Gunbalunya, Kalkaringi, Lajamanu, Maningrida, Milingimbi, Ramingining, Ngkurr, Shepherdson College, Numbulwar, Yirrkala and Yuendumu. This revitalisation is conceived as part of an effort aimed at "providing effective education from pre-school through to senior secondary at each of the Territory’s 15 Community Education Centres". As Harris & Devlin (1986) observe, “Aboriginal bilingual education in Australia represents much more than a range of education programs. It has been a measure of non-Aboriginal commitment to either assimilation or cultural pluralism”. Canada In Canada , education is under provincial jurisdiction. However, the federal government has been a strong supporter of establishing Canada as a bilingual country and has helped pioneer the French Immersion programs in the public education systems throughout Canada. In French immersion students with no previous French-language training, usually beginning in Kindergarten or grade 1, do all of their school work in French. In higher grades they will have some instruction in English. There are also some Private School s and Preschool s that do immersion programs in other languages.
China Ninety-two percent of the population in China speaks Mandarin . However, there are 55 distinct minority languages. Mandarin is the national lingua franca and promotes communication between dialect goups. Minority language speakers in China are granted the constitutional right to be educated in their primary language. However, minority language speakers are expected to master Chinese. The national government retains a policy of "dialect bilingualism" in which individuals are encouraged to become proficient in the lingua franca and their dialectal language. The general consensus among Chinese scholars is that it is better to addess minority education by teaching in the mother tongue instead of enforcing a "Chinese-only" policy. Most bilingual classrooms address the goal of maintenance of the minority language. Students develop proficiency in the majoity language in the following progression:
Minority language is used to teach Mandarin
Both languages are used when students develop understanding of Mandarin
Mandarin is used as a main medium of instruction, and the minority language is taught for several hours per week. Hong Kong In Hong Kong where both English and Chinese are official, both languages are taught in school and are mandatory subjects. Either English or Chinese is used as the medium of instruction for other subjects. Japan In Japan , the need for bilingualism (mostly Japanese and English ) has been pointed out, and there are some scholars who advocate teaching children subjects such as mathematics using English rather than Japanese. As part of this proposal, subjects such as history, however, would be taught solely in Japanese. Singapore Bilingual Education was introduced in Singapore during the 1960's due to the multi racial group nature of the country. English, as a European language and a legacy of the British rule facilitates as a neutral link language between the different racial groups. Chinese, Malay and Tamil Students are required to learn their Mother Tongue s in addition to English. If a student's mother tongue is not offered as a course in school (such as other Indian languages), the student can choose from any of the three offered. The Netherlands In the Netherlands, there are around 50 bilingual schools. In these schools, some subjects are taught in English, some in Dutch. Most schools are TVWO (Bilingual Preparatory Scientific Education), but there is THAVO (Bilingual Higher General Secondary Education), too. The following subjects are taught in English: Arts, Chemistry, Physics, Drama, English, Mathematics, History and Religious Studies. United States Bilingual education has multiple forms in the United States. Many parents have begun enrolling their preschool aged English-speaking children in "immersion" programs so that they will learn another languages (primarily spanish) in addition to their own 1. Other bilingual education in the U.S. focuses on learners of English as a second language. According to the U.S. Department of Education website a bilingual education program is “an educational program for limited English proficient students”. Furthermore, the term ‘limited English proficient’, when used with respect to an individual, means an individual whose primary language is other than English and whose difficulties in speaking, reading, writing, or understanding the English language may be sufficient to deny the individual the ability to successfully achieve in classrooms where the language of instruction is English or the opportunity to participate fully in society. In the 50 states of the United States , proponents of the practice argue that it will help to keep non-English-speaking children from falling behind their peers in while they master English. Opponents of bilingual education argue that it delays students' mastery of English, thereby retarding the learning of other subjects as well. In California there has been considerable politicking for and against bilingual education. Much of the argument against hinges on the reality that California is in the United States, and the majority-held opinion that everyone in the US should learn to speak English . While English is spoken by the vast majority of Americans, America does not have an official language. In 1968 U.S. Congress first mandated bilingual education in order to give immigrants access to education in their “first” language. There are two different approaches to this form of instruction. One is called ‘bilingual education’ and it involves teaching in the students’ first language and also English. The other is known as an ‘immersion program’ where the teachers instruct predominantly in English, and use the students’ native language only for explanations. In Lafayette, LA and its parish school district, French immersion is offered beginning in kindergarten. By highschool, the children are in AP French III, comparable to French VII. They take all classes, save English, in French. The children gain a near-native proficiency. The majority of U.S. high school students in the United States are required to take at least 1 to 2 years of a second language. The vast majority of these classes are either French or Spanish. In a large number of schools this is taught in a manner known as FLES , in which students learn about the second language in a manner similar to other subjects such as Math or Science. Some schools use an additional method known as FLEX in which the "nature of the language" and culture are also taught. High school education rarely uses "immersion" techniques 2. CONTROVERSY There has been much debate over bilingual education in recent times. Proponents of bilingual education say that it is easier for students to learn English if they are literate in their first language and that good bilingual programs strive to achieve proficiency in both the primary and secondary language for the student. Some claim that this type of learning works well in a classroom where half the students speak English and half are considered limited English proficient (LEP). The teacher instructs in English and in the LEP’s primary language. The dual purpose of this type of classroom is to teach the children a new language and to let them learn about another culture. It is alleged that if the program is well designed and the teachers are well equipped then kids have a better chance of success. Opponents of bilingual education claim that many bilingual education programs are, in fact, native language programs with a minimal emphasis on teaching students proficiency in the primary language of the culture they are in (e.g., English). This charge has been particularly brought to bear against the bilingual technique known as Transitional Bilingual Education which emphasizes the theory that students must first become fluent in their native language before learning a second language. Critics of bilingual education have claimed that studies supporting bilingual education tend to have poor methodologies and that there is little empirical support in favor of it. Supporters of bilingual education challenge these contentions. The controversy over bilingual education is often enmeshed in a larger political and cultural context. Opponents of bilingual education are sometimes accused of racism and xenophobia. This is especially so in the case of such groups as English First which is a conservative organization that promotes the stance that English should be the official language of the United States. Proponents of bilingual are frequently accused of practicing identity politics to the detriment of children and of immigrants, a position that may be bolstered by the fact that various polls have shown that immigrant communities often support the ''curtailing'' of bilingual language programs. The controversies involved in this issues were highlighted by California's Proposition 227 {Link without Title} which sought to curtail bilingual education in favor of so-called "mainstreaming". In 1998, California voters passed the proposition over strenuous objections from bilingual advocates. The ultimate effect of the passage of Proposition 227 has been controversial. Political opponents of bilingual education claimed that statistics have shown an improvement in student scores, while academic researchers have shown California test scores do not reflect improvements due to Proposition 227. The final report of a study commissioned by the California state legislature, released in 2006, also found that Proposition 227 did not improve academic outcomes for English Learners. California was followed by Arizona in the passage the similar Arizona Proposition 203 which limited the opportunities available to minority language students. The Arizona law is even more restrictive, particularly under the implementation of Superintendent of Public Instruction Tom Horne. REFERENCES SEE ALSO FURTHER READING
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