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PRE-ISLAMIC POETRY The earliest works of Arabic literature are poems, with Prose only used later. The distinction between the forms is particularly blurred in Arabic with ''saj'', '' Maqama '' or Rhymed Prose being frequently employed. Poetry held an important position in pre-Islamic society with the poet or '' Sha'ir '' filling the role of Historian , Soothsayer and Propagandist , similar to the Sibyl in Ancient Greek society. Words in praise of the tribe or '' Qit'ah '' and lampoons denigrating other tribes '' Hija' '' seem to have been some of the most popular forms of the early poetry. The ''sha'ir'' represented an individual tribe's prestige and importance in the Arabian peninsula and mock battles in poetry or '' Zajal '' would stand in lieu of real wars. 'Ukaz , a market town not far from Mecca , would play host to a regular poetry festival where the craft of the ''sha'irs'' would be exhibited. Along side the ''sha'ir'', and often as his poetic apprentice, is the '' Rawi '' or reciter. The job of the rawi was to learn the poems by heart and to recite them with explanations and probably often with embellishments. This tradition would allow the transmission of these poetic works and the practice would be adopted later by the '' Hafiz '' for their memorisation of the Qur'an . At some periods there have been unbroken chains of illustrious poets, each one training a ''rawi'' as a bard to promote his verse and then to take over from them and continue the poetic tradition. Tufayl trained 'Awas Ibn Hajar , 'Awas trained Zuhayr Ibn Abî Sûlmâ , Zuhayr trained his son Ka'b Bin Zuhayr , Ka'b trained Al-Hutay'ah , al-Hutay'ah trained Jamil Buthaynah and Jamil trained Kuthayyir 'Azzah . Singers who simply performed works included performed Ibrahim Al-Mawsili , his son Ishaq Al-Mawsili and Ibrahim Ibn Al-Mahdi son of caliph Al-Mahdi . Many stories about these early singers were retold in the ''Kitab al-aghani'' or ''Book of Songs'' by Abu Al-faraj Al-Isfahani . Some poets, such as Ta'abbata Sharran , Al-Shanfara , 'Urwah Ibn Al-Ward , were known as ''su'luk'' or vagabond poets, much of whose works consisted of attacks on tribal life and praise of solitude. These works were designed to be ironic, criticising all that the Arabs held most dear in their tribal lifestyles in order to sing their praises. While such poets were identified closely with their own tribes others, such as Al-A'sha , were known for their wanderings in search of work from whoever needed poetry. The very best of these early poems were collected in the 8th Century as the '' Mu'allaqat '' meaning "the Hanged poems" and the '' Mufaddaliyat '' meaning Al-Mufaddal 's examination or anthology. The former is named the hanged poems for supposedly being hung up on the Kaaba and other prominent buildings although this is now though unlikely. It also aimed to be the definitive source of the era's output with only a single example of the work of each of the so-called "seven renowned ones", although different versions differ in which "renowned ones" they choose. The ''Mufaddaliyat'' on the other hand contains rather a random collection; apparently all that was remembered and perhaps some that was only produced in the 8th century and was not truly pre-Islamic. POETRY UNDER ISLAM These early poems were to some extent a threat to the newly emerging faith of Islam and if not actually suppressed, fell into disuse for some years. The division of society into tribes and the internecine warfare carried out through verse served to separate Arabs at a time when religion was trying to pull them together. The ''sha'ir'' and their pronouncements were too closely associated with the religion practiced before Islam and the role of the poet was singled out for criticism in the Qur'an. They also praised subjects of dubious merit such as wine, women and gambling, which clashed with the new ideology. Satirical poems attacking an idea or leader were less censured. While some poets were early converts, poetry about or in praise of Islam took some time to develop. It was the early poems' importance to Islamic scholarship, though, which would lead to their preservation. Not only did the poems illuminate life in the early years of Islam and its antecedents but they would also prove the basis for the study of linguistics of which the Qur'an was regarded as the pinnacle. Many of the pre-Islamic forms of verse were retained and improved upon. ''Naqa'id'' or Flyting s, where two poets exchange creative insults, were popular with Al-Farazdaq and Jarir swapping a great deal of invective. The tradition continued in a slightly modified form as ''zajal'', in which two groups 'joust' in verse, remains a common style in Lebanon . COURT POETS Ghaylan Ibn 'Uqbah (c. 696 - c. 735 ), nicknamed Dhu al-Rummah, is usually regarded as the last of the Bedouin poets. His works had continued the themes and style of the pre-Islamic poets particularly eulogising the harsh but simple desert life, traditionally told round a campfire. Although such themes continued—and were returned to by many modern, urban poets—this poetic life was giving way to court poets. The more settled, comfortable and luxurious life in Ummayyad courts led to a greater emphasis on the '' Ghazal '' or love poem. Chief amongst this new breed of poet was Abu Nuwas . Not only did Abu Nuwas spoof the traditional poetic form of the qasidah and write many poems in praise of wine, his main occupation was the writing of ever more ribald ''ghazal'' many of them openly homosexual. While Nuwas produced risqué but beautiful poems, many of which pushed to the limit what was acceptable under Islam, others produced more religiously themed poetry. It is said that Nuwas struck a bargain with his contemporary . These homilies expressed views on religion, sin and the afterlife, but occasionally strayed into unorthodox territory. While the work of al-Alahijah was acceptable, others like the poet Salih Ibn 'Abd Al-Quddus were executed for heresy. Waddah Al-Yaman was also executed for his verse but this was probably due to his over familiarity with the wife of the caliph Al-Walid I . The Sufi tradition would also produce poetry closely linked to religion. Sufism is the mystical offshoot of Islam and it emphasised the Allegorical nature of language and writing. Many of their works appear to be simple ''ghazal'' or ''khamriyyah''. Under the guise of the love or wine poem they would contemplate the mortal flesh and attempt to achieve Transcendence . Rabi'ah Al-'Adawiyyah , Abd Yazid Al-Bistami and Mansur Al-Hallaj are some of the most significant Sufi poets, but their poetry and doctrine were dangerous and al-Hallaj was eventually crucified for heresy. The caliph himself could take on the role of court poet with Al-Walid II a notable example, but he was widely disliked for his immorality and was deposed after only a year An important doctrine of Arabic poetry from the start was its complexity but during the period of court poetry this became an art form in itself known as '' Badi ''. There were feature such as Metaphor , Paronomasia (basically puns), juxtaposing opposites and tricky theological allusions. Bashar Ibn Burd was instrumental in developing these complexities which later poets felt they had to surpass. Although not all writers enjoyed the baroque style, with argumentative letters on the matter being sent by Ibn Burd and Ibn Miskawayh , the poetic brinkmanship of ''badi'' led to a certain formality in the poetic art, with only the greatest poet's words shining through the complex structures and wordplay. This often makes Arabic poetry even less easy to translate then poetry from other languages and much of a poet's skill is usually hidden. Arabic poetry declined after the and Saint Teresa Of Ávila . MODERN POETRY The revival of Arabic poetry in the late 19th , early 20th Century first displayed a Neo-classical style. It consciously used the themes and forms of some of the earliest poets with Hafiz Ibrahim being one of the best exponents. Later poets would reject the purely Arabic neo-classical style and instead many would seek inspiration from Romanticism and particularly the romanticism of English Poetry . Poets such as Sa'id 'Aql from Lebanon , with its closer ties to France , would be more influenced by the Symbolist movement. A common theme in much of the new poetry was the use of the '' Ghazel '' or love song in praise of the poet's homeland. This is manifested either as a Nationalism for the newly emerging Nation State s of the region or in a wider sense as an Arab Nationalism emphasising the unity of all Arab people. The poems of praise or the '' Madih '', and the '' Hija '' or lampoon also returned. Ahmed Shawqi produced several works praising the reforming Turkish leader Kemal Atatürk , but when Atatürk abolished the Caliphate Shawqi was not slow in attacking him in verse. Political views in poetry were often more unwelcome in the 20th century than they had been in the 7th and several poets faced censorship or, in the case of Abd Al-Wahhab Al-Bayyati , exile. After World War II there was a largely unsuccessful movement by several poets to write poems in ''shi'r hurr'' or Free Verse . Most of these experiments were abandoned in favour of Prose Poetry , of which one of the most important contemporary exponents is Iman Mersal . The growth of Modernist Poetry also influenced poetry in Arabic. POETIC FORMS Poetry in Arabic is traditionally grouped in a ''diwan'' or collection of poems. These can be arranged by poet, tribe, topic or the name of the compiler such as the ''Asma'iyyat'' of Al-Asma'i . Most poems did not have titles and they were usually named from their first lines. Sometimes they were arranged alphabetically by their rhymes. The role of the poet in Arabic developed in a similar way to poets elsewhere. The safe and easy patronage in royal courts was no longer available but a successful poet such as Nizar Qabbani was able to set up his own publishing house. A large proportion of all Arabic poetry is written using the Monorhyme . This is simply the same rhyme used on every line of a poem. While this may seem a poor Rhyme Scheme for people used to English Literature it makes sense in a language like Arabic which has only three Vowel s which can be either long or short. Mu'rabbah: literary Arabic
Malhunah: informal poetry
POETIC THEMES
SELECTED POETS & ANTHOLOGISTS See also
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