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This article is about the religion. For the Russian glamour model, see Vicca . For the Anglo-Saxon tribe, see Hwicce . within a circle; a symbol of faith used by many Wiccans.]] Wicca is a Neopagan Religion or Religious Movement found in many different countries, though most commonly in English-speaking cultures. Wicca was first publicised in 1954 by a British civil servant named Gerald Gardner 1 after the British Witchcraft Act was repealed. He claimed that the religion, of which he was an Initiate , was a modern survival of an old Witch cult, which had existed in secret for hundreds of years, originating in the pre- Christian Paganism of Europe . Wicca is thus sometimes referred to as the '''Old Religion'''. The veracity of Gardner's claims cannot be independently proven, and it is thought that Wiccan theology began to be compiled no earlier than the 1920 s. Various related Wiccan traditions have since evolved, or been adapted from, the form established by Gardner, which came to be called Gardnerian Wicca . These other traditions of Wicca each have specific beliefs, rituals, and practices. Most traditions of Wicca remain secretive and require members to be initiated. However, there is a growing movement of '''Eclectic''' or '''Solitary Wiccans''' who claim to adhere to the religion but do not believe any doctrine or traditional initiation is necessary. CORE CONCEPTS Because there is no centralised organisation in Wicca, and no single "orthodoxy", the beliefs and practices of Wiccans can vary substantially, both between individuals and between traditions. Typically, however, the main religious principles, ethics and ritual structures are shared, since they are key elements of both traditional teachings and published works on the subject. Wicca as a magical religion Wicca is primarily a religion, and although its adherents often identify as Witches , Wicca and witchcraft are not the same thing. Wiccans worship a Goddess and a God; they observe the festivals of the eight Sabbats of the year and the full-moon Esbat s; and they have a Code Of Ethics that most live by. Wicca is thus generally considered to be distinct from Witchcraft , which does not of itself imply any specific Religious , Ethical or Ritual elements, and is practiced in various forms by people of many religions, as well as by Atheists . Wicca does however incorporate a specific form of witchcraft, with particular ritual forms, involving the casting of Spell s, Herbalism , Divination and other Magic . While witchcraft in general can be for good or evil, Wiccan ethics require that magical activities are limited to good purposes only. According to Gerald Gardner , who first publicised Wicca, the religion derives from a secret but wide-spread witch-cult of early modern Europe, which incorporated all of the key religious beliefs and ideals and the distinctive ritual structures found in modern Wicca. While this historical interpretation is now much criticised, it makes it difficult to conclusively say whether Wicca is a religious form of witchcraft or a religion incorporating witchcraft. While most Wiccans practice magic, a few do not, and do not identify as witches. Similarly, many Wiccans, though not all, call themselves Pagan s, though the umbrella term ''Paganism'' encompasses many faiths that have nothing to do with Wicca or witchcraft. Wiccan views on Divinity It is commonly understood that most Wiccans worship two deities: the Goddess , often asscociated with Gaea or Mother Earth , and her consort the God (sometimes known as the Horned God ). It is also common among more traditional groups to acknowledge a unified supreme godhead, frequently referred to as Dryghten . The partnership of the Wiccan Goddess and God is generally viewed as dynamic and complementary, with neither dominating, however in some traditions, such as Dianic Wicca , the Goddess alone is worshipped. In those traditions, the God plays either no role, or a diminished role. A significant number of Wiccans from various traditions do not claim to be Dualist , but practice some form of Polytheism , often with particular reference to the Celtic Pantheon s. They may also be Animists , Pantheists , or indeed anywhere within the broad spectrum of Neopagan forms of worship. The elements There are different thoughts in Wicca regarding the Elements. Some hold to the Ancient Greek Conception of the Classical Element s (air, fire, water, earth), while others add a fifth or Quintessential element, spirit ( Aether , Akasha ). The five points of the frequently worn Pentagram symbolise, among other things, the four elements with spirit presiding at the top.2 The Pentagram is the Symbol most commonly associated with Wicca in modern times. It is often circumscribed — depicted within a circle, and is, except in specific contexts, shown with a single point upward. In Geometry the pentagram is an elegant expression of the Golden Ratio Phi , which is popularly connected with ideal beauty and was considered by the Pythagoreans to express truths about the hidden nature of existence. Another view, though less common, on the symbolism of the pentagram is that upright it is a charm which protects its wearer through passive energies, such as good will or pleasing emotions, and that if it is inverted, it will protect its wearer in the form of aggressive energies, such as curses or angry emotions (the contrast between the upright "good" pentagram and inverted "bad" pentagram seems to have been invented by Eliphas Levi ). {Link without Title} In either case, these are the elements of nature that symbolize for Wiccans the different places, emotions, objects, and natural energies and forces. For instance, Crystal s and stones are objects of the element earth, and Seashell s are objects associated with the element of water. Each of the four cardinal elements ( Air , Fire , Water and Earth ) are commonly assigned a direction, a color, and "creatures." The following list is not true for all traditions or branches of Wicca:
These correspondences may vary among traditions. It is common in the southern hemisphere, for example, to associate the element fire with north (the direction of the equator) and earth with south (the direction of the nearest polar area). Some Wiccan groups also modify the religious calendar to reflect local seasonal changes; for instance, most Southern Hemisphere covens will celebrate Samhain on April 30th and Beltane on October 31st, reflecting the southern hemisphere's autumn and spring seasons. Morality Despite the popular negative connotations associated with witchcraft, Wiccans see their use of witchcraft as positive and good, and Black or evil magic is viewed as antithetical to Wiccan beliefs and activities. In fact in all areas of behaviour, magical or otherwise, Wiccan morality can be summarised in the form of a text that is commonly titled '' The Wiccan Rede ''. The core maxim of that text states "An it harm none, do what thou wilt." ("An" is an archaic word meaning "if".) Many Wiccans promote the Law Of Threefold Return . This is the idea that anything that one does will be returned to them threefold. In other words, good deeds are magnified in like forms back to the doer, and so are ill deeds. It can also be interpreted to mean that your deeds come back to you emotionally, spiritually, and physically, not three times in strength. Gerina Dunwich , an American author whose books (notably, '' Wicca Craft '') were instrumental in the increase in popularity of Wicca in the late 1980s and 1990s, disagrees with the Wiccan concept of threefold return on the grounds that it is inconsistent with more than one law of physics. Pointing out that the origin of the Law of Threefold Return is traceable to Raymond Buckland in the 20th century, Dunwich is of the opinion that, "There is little backing to support it as anything other than a psychological law." Her own personal belief, which differs from the usual interpretation of the Threefold Law, is that whatever we do on a physical, mental, or spiritual level will sooner or later affect us, in either a positive or negative way, on all three levels of being. Many traditional Wiccans also follow, or at least consider, a set of 161 Laws . A common criticism of these rules is that they represent outdated concepts and/or produce counterproductive results in Wiccan contexts. Many Wiccans also seek to cultivate the ''Eight Wiccan Virtues'' as a guideline for their deeds. These are Mirth, Reverence, Honour, Humility, Strength, Beauty, Power, and Compassion, and are found in a phrase from Doreen Valiente 's '' Charge Of The Goddess '', Farrar, Janet & Stewart , ''Eight Sabbats for Witches''. where they are ordered in pairs of complementary opposites, reflecting a Dualism that is common throughout Wiccan philosophy. . A recurrent belief amongst Wiccans is that no magic should be performed on any other person without that person's direct permission (excepting pets, which obviously cannot give explicit permission for such an act). This may stem from the Rede's declaration of "An it harm none, do what thou wilt", in that a person may not wish to have a spell cast upon them, and doing so without first obtaining permission interferes with their free will, which falls under the meaning of the word 'harm' as applied in the Rede. Secrecy and initiation Some practitioners of traditional initiatory Wicca consider that the term 'Wicca' only correctly applies to an Initiate of a traditional branch of the religion (such as Gardnerian or Alexandrian Wicca) because Solitary Wicca or Eclectic Wicca are different in practice from the religion established by Gardner. However, the term has increasingly come to be adopted by people who are not initiates of a traditional lineaged Coven . These ''non-initiatory'' Wiccans may undertake rituals of self-dedication, and generally work alone as Solitaries or in casual groups, rather than in organised covens. Thus ''non-initiatory'' Wicca shares some of the basic religious principles, ethics and the ritual system of 'traditional' or 'initiatory' Wicca, but not the organisational structure, or the belief that Wiccan initiation requires a transferral of power from an initiator. Therefore, some practitioners of traditional initiatory Wicca have adopted the term ' British Traditional Wicca ' to differentiate themselves from this movement. Organisation within Wicca Some Wiccans join groups called Coven s. Others work alone and are called "solitaries". Some solitaries do, however, attend "gatherings" and other community events, but reserve their spiritual practices (Sabbats, Esbat s, spell-casting, Worship , magical work, etc.) for when they are alone. Some Wiccans work with a community without being part of a coven. Many Wiccan traditions hold that the ideal number of members for a coven is thirteen, though this is not held as a hard-and-fast rule. When covens grow beyond their ideal number of members, they often split (or "hive") into multiple covens, yet remain connected as a group. A grouping of multiple covens is known as a grove in many traditions. When someone is being initiated into a coven, it is also traditional to study with the coven for a year and a day before their actual initiation into the religion, and some Solitary Wiccans choose to study for a year and a day before dedicating themselves to the religion. Wiccans can also be "promoted" into higher ranks such as head priestess or head priest. Rank can be shown through coloured cords. Initiation can include a dramatic aspect, like the re-enactment of a myth which is most common in the initiaion into the coven. Ritual in England , on Beltane , 2005.]]In typical rites, the Wiccans assemble inside a Magic Circle , which is marked using various means, in a ritual manner followed by a cleansing and then blessing of the space. Prayers to the God and Goddess are said, and spells are sometimes worked. Traditionally, the circle is followed by a meal. Before entering the circle, some traditions fast for the day, and have a thorough wash. Tools Many Wiccans use a special set of altar tools in their rituals; these can include a Broom (besom), Cauldron , Chalice (goblet), Wand , Book Of Shadows , Altar Cloth , Athame (used in rituals to channel energy; it can be pronounced as AH-thom-AY, a-THAY-may, et cetera.), Boline (or a knife for cutting things in the physical world), Candle s, and/or Incense . Representations of the God / Goddess are often also used, which may be direct, representative, or abstract. The tools themselves are just that — tools, and have no innate powers of their own, though they are usually dedicated or charged with a particular purpose, and used only in that context. It is considered rude to touch another's tools without permission. Ritual attire A sensationalized aspect of Wicca, particularly in Gardnerian Wicca , is that some Wiccans practice naked. Though many Wiccans do engage in rituals while Skyclad others do not. Some Wiccans wear a pure cotton robe, to symbolise bodily purity, and a cord, to symbolise interdependence and rank. Others wear normal clothes or whatever they think is appropriate. Robes and even Renaissance-Faire-type clothing are not uncommon. Ritual occasions Wiccans typically mark each full moon (and in some cases new moons) with a ritual called an Esbat . They also celebrate eight main holidays called Sabbats . Four of these, the Cross-quarter Day s, are greater festivals, coinciding with old Celtic fire festivals. These are Halloween or Samhain (pronounced sow-en or sow-ain), May Eve or Beltane (or Beltaine), Candlemas (or Imbolc , Imbolg, Oimelc) and Lammas (or Lughnasad, which is pronounced LOO-nah-sah). The four lesser festivals are the Summer Solstice (or Litha ) and Winter Solstice (or Yule ), and the Spring and Autumn Equinox es, sometimes called Ostara (or Eostar or Eostre) and Mabon . See also the Wheel Of The Year . The names of these holidays generally coincide with (or directly draw upon) ancient pan-Germanic and pan-Celtic holidays held around the same times. Ritual observations may include mixtures of those holidays as well as others celebrated at the same time in other cultures- there are several ways to celebrate the holidays. These eight holidays (or festivals in some cultures) tend to be found in more than a few European culture groups before the invasion of monotheist missionary efforts. In this respect, Wiccans have a link, albeit tenuous, with their ideological ancestors. Wiccan weddings can be "bondings", "joinings", or "eclipses" but are most commonly called " Handfasting s". Some Wiccans observe an ancient Celtic practice of a trial marriage for a year and a day, which some traditions hold should be contracted on Lammas (Lughnasadh), although this is far from universal. This practice is attested from centuries ago in the fourth and fifth volumes of the Brehon law texts, which are compilations of the opinions and judgements of the Brehon class of Druids (in this case, Irish). The texts as a whole deal with a copious amount of detail for the ancient Celtic tribes in the Isles .O'Donovan, J., O'Curry, E., Hancock, W. N., O'Mahony, T., Richey, A. G., Hennessy, W. M., & Atkinson, R. (eds.) (2000). ''Ancient laws of Ireland, published under direction of the Commissioners for Publishing the Ancient Laws and Institutes of Ireland.'' Buffalo, New York: W.S. Hein. ISBN 1575885727. (Originally published: Dublin: A. Thom, 1865-1901. Alternatively known as ''Hiberniae leges et institutiones antiquae''.) HISTORY OF WICCA Origins While the ritual format of Wicca is undeniably styled after late Victorian Era occultism (even co-founder Doreen Valiente admits seeing influence from Crowley), the spiritual content is inspired by older Pagan faiths, with Buddhist and Hindu influences. Whether any historical connection to Pagan religion exists, the aspiration to emulate Pagan religion as it was understood at the time certainly does. Gardner probably had access to few, if any, traditional Pagan rites. The prevailing theory is that most of his rites were the result of an adaption of the works of Aleister Crowley . Gardner was chartered by Crowley to form an encampment of Crowley's Ordo Templi Orientis in England, though he never did (Sutin, pp. 409-410). There is very little in the Wiccan rites that cannot be shown to have come from earlier extant sources. The original material is not cohesive and mostly takes the form of substitutions or expansions within unoriginal material. Roger Dearnaley, in ''An Annotated Chronology and Bibliography of the Early Gardnerian Craft'',6 describes it as a patchwork. Philip Heselton , writing in ''Wiccan Roots'' and later in ''Gerald Gardner and the Cauldron of Inspiration'', argues that Gardner was not the author of the Wiccan rituals but received them in good faith from an unknown source. ( Doreen Valiente makes this claim regarding the "basic skeleton of the rituals," as Margot Adler puts it in ''Drawing Down the Moon''.) He notes that all the Crowley material that is found in the Wiccan rituals can be found in a single book, ''The Equinox vol 3 no. 1'' or ''Blue Equinox''. Gardner is not known to have owned or had access to a copy of this book. Some, such as Isaac Bonewits , have argued that Valiente and Heselton's evidence points to an early 20th century revival predating Gardner, rather than an intact old Pagan religion. The argument points to historical claims of Gardner's that agree with scholarship of a certain time period and contradict later scholarship. Bonewits writes, ''Somewhere between 1920 and 1925 in England some folklorists appear to have gotten together with some Golden Dawn Rosicrucians and a few supposed Fam-Trads to produce the first modern covens in England; grabbing eclectically from any source they could find in order to try and reconstruct the shards of their Pagan past.'' Crowley published the aforementioned Blue Equinox in 1919. The idea of primitive Matriarchal religions, deriving ultimately from studies by Johann Jakob Bachofen , was popular in Gardner's day, both among academics (e.g., Erich Neumann , Margaret Murray ) and amateurs such as Robert Graves . Later academics (e.g. Carl Jung and Marija Gimbutas ) continued research in this area, and later still Joseph Campbell , Ashley Montagu and others became fans of Gimbutas' theories of matriarchies in Old Europe. Matriarchal interpretations of the archaeological record and the criticism of such work continue to be matters of academic debate. Some academics carry on research in this area (such as the 2003 World Congress on Matriarchal Studies). Critics argue that such matriarchal societies never actually existed and are an invention of researchers such as Margaret Murray . This is disputed by documentaries such as "Blossoms of Fire" (about contemporary Zapotec society). The idea of a supreme — especially related to the gods Pan or Faunus — was less common, but still significant. Hutton, R. (1999), pp. 33-51. Both of these ideas were widely accepted in academic literature and the popular press at the time. Hutton, R. (1999), pp. 151-170. Gardner used these concepts as his central theological doctrine and constructed Wicca around this core. Later developments Wicca has developed in several directions since it was first publicised by Gerald Gardner. Gardnerian Wicca was an Initiatory Mystery Religion , admission to which was limited to those who were initiated into a pre-existing coven. The '' Book Of Shadows '', the Grimoire that contained the rituals, was kept secret and was only obtainable from a coven of proper lineage. Despite the fact that several versions of the Book of Shadows have now been publicly published, many traditions of Wicca still maintain strict secrecy regarding the book and certain other aspects of the religion. Raymond Buckland introduced modern Wicca to America after moving to Long Island. Buckland continued writing the Book of Shadows. Further degrees of initiation were required before members could found their own covens. Interest outstripped the ability of the mostly British-based covens to train and propagate members; the beliefs of the religion spread faster by the printed word or word of mouth than the initiatory system was prepared to handle. Other traditions appeared that gradually brought more attention and adherents to the extant Neopaganism movement. Some claimed roots as ancient as Gardner's version, and were organised along similar lines. Others were Syncretic , incorporating aspects of Kabbalah , romanticised Celtic Pagan concepts, and Ceremonial Magic . In 1971 "Lady Sheba" published what she claimed was a version of the Gardnerian ''Book of Shadows'', although the authenticity of this book has never been validated. Increasing awareness of Gardner's literary sources and the actual early history of the movement made creativity seem as valuable as Gardnerian tradition. Another significant development was the creation by Feminists of Dianic Wicca , or feminist Dianic Witchcraft. This is a specifically feminist faith that discarded Gardnerian-style hierarchy as irrelevant, amongst other aspects. Many Dianic Wiccans taught that witchcraft was every woman's right and heritage to claim. This heritage might be best characterized by Monique Wittig words on the subject: ''"But remember. Make an effort to remember. Or, failing that, invent."'' This tradition was comparatively (and unusually for that time) open to solitary witches. Rituals were created for self-initiation to allow people to identify with and join the religion without first contacting an existing coven. This contrasts with the Gardnerian belief that only a witch of opposite gender could initiate another witch. The publications of Raymond Buckland illustrate these changes. During the early Buckland published ''Buckland's Complete Book of Witchcraft'', a workbook that sought to train readers in magical and ritual techniques as well as instructing them in Wiccan teachings and rituals. Unfortunately, even after Buckland wrote his revised edition of this book there were still many errors from his original work that were never updated. "Buckland's Complete Book of Witchcraft" is still considered by many Wiccans to be an excellent source of information about Witchcraft and has been called "Uncle Bucky's Big Blue Book." ETYMOLOGY Gerald Gardner is credited with re-introducing the word ' Wicca ' into the English Language , although he himself used the spelling 'Wica' in his published work of 1954. The spelling 'Wicca' is now used almost exclusively, Seax-Wica being the only major use of the four-letter spelling. Gardner himself usually called his religion 'witchcraft' and only used the word 'wica' sparingly. The word 'Wicca' was never used as a book title until Scott Cunningham introduced his first book "Wicca: A Guide for the Solitary Practitioner" in the late 1980s. Some of the first people to actually use the word 'Wiccan' to describe their beliefs were of the Alexandrian tradition in England which was founded by Alex Sanders. These first Wiccans were Janet and Stewart Farrar who wrote the book "A Witches Bible: Complete." In 's Latin Penitential where it is stated that Some men are so blind that they bring their offering to earth-fast stone and also to trees and to wellsprings, as the witches teach, and are unwilling to understand how stupidly they do or how that dead stone or that dumb tree might help them or give forth health when they themselves are never able to stir from their place. The phrase ''swa wiccan tæcaþ'' ("as the witches teach") seems to be an addition to Halitgar's original, added by an eleventh-century Old-English translator.7 Although the word is very old, it has long been out of use. Its modern English descendant is the word '' Witch ''. Other disputed derivations are from the Old English roots '' Witan '' (ie. " Witena " as used in the Anglo-Saxon Rune Poem stanza for " The Mouth "), ''wiccae'' meaning 'wise one' (coupled with ''craeft'' meaning craft). Wicca is often called the "Craft of the Wise", alluding to the latter derivation. (see Völva or Witch ). From its and Vikar . DISCRIMINATION AND PERSECUTION OF WICCANS According to the traditional history of Wicca as given by Gerald Gardner, Wicca is a survival of the European witch-cult that was persecuted during the Witch Trial s (sometimes called the '' Burning Times ''), and the strong element of secrecy that traditionally surrounds the religion was adopted as a reaction to that persecution. Since then Margaret Murray 's theory of an organised pan-European witch-cult has been discredited, and doubts raised about the age of Wicca, and many Wiccans no longer claim this historical lineage. However it is still common for Wiccans to feel solidarity with the victims of the witch trials, and being witches, to consider the witch-craze to have been a persecution against their faith. 8 In modern times, Wiccans have been incorrectly associated with . Wiccans also experience difficulties in administering and receiving prison ministry, although not in the UK of recent times. Because of the popular negative connotations associated with Witchcraft , many Wiccans continue the traditional practice of secrecy, concealing their faith for fear of persecution. Revealing oneself as Wiccan to family, friends or colleagues is often termed " Coming Out Of The Broom-closet ". United States In 1985, as a result of '' Dettmer V. Landon '', 617 F. Supp. 592, the District Court of Virginia ruled that Wicca is a legally recognised religion and is afforded all the benefits accorded to it by law. This was affirmed a year later by Judge J. Butzner of the Federal Appeals Court fourth circuit ( 799 F 2d 929, 1986 ). Nevertheless, Wiccans can still become the object of stigma in America, and many remain secretive about their beliefs. The United States Department Of Veterans Affairs has not approved use of the pentacle in military cemeteries, although symbols of many other religions are permitted. (This policy came under attack when Patrick Stewart, a Wiccan soldier, was killed in action in Afghanistan in 2005. His widow has pressed for the inclusion of a pentacle to memorialize him at the Northern Nevada Veterans Memorial Cemetery. '' VA to decide on use of Wiccan symbols '' by Lisa Hoffman (San Angelo Standard-Times). Last accessed 21 April 2006 .) The conservative Christian 2006 . In 1999 a group of conservative Christian groups was formed on the initiative of representative Bob Barr (R-GA), in response to Wiccan gatherings on military bases. The group asked US citizens not to enlist or re-enlist in the U.S. Army until the Army terminates the on-base freedoms of religion, speech and assembly for all Wiccan soldiers. The boycott is chronicled in several articles: {Link without Title} {Link without Title} {Link without Title} {Link without Title} {Link without Title} {Link without Title} {Link without Title} The boycott has since become inactive. George W. Bush stated ''"I don't think witchcraft is a religion. I would hope the military officials would take a second look at the decision they made."''. {Link without Title} {Link without Title} {Link without Title} {Link without Title} {Link without Title} {Link without Title} {Link without Title} {Link without Title} {Link without Title} {Link without Title} {Link without Title} In September 1985 some conservative Christian legislators introduced three pieces of legislation designed to take away the rights of Wiccans. The first one was House Resolution (H.R.) 3389 introduced September 19 by congressman Robert S. Walker (R-Penn.) Senator Jesse Helms (R, NC) made an amendment, Amendment 705, in the House Resolution 3036, The Treasury, Postal, and General Government Appropriations Bill for 1986, specifying that organizations that promote "witchcraft" should not be given tax-exempt status. After being ignored for a while it got attached to HR 3036 by an unanimous voice vote of the senators. Congressman Richard T. Schulze (R-Penn) introduced substantially the same amendment into the Tax Reform Bill of 1985. When the conference committee met on October 30, the Helms Amendment was thrown out since it was not considered germaine to the bill. Following this Schulze withdrew his amendment from the Tax Reform Bill. Leaving only HR 3389, the Walker Bill. It managed to attract Joe Barton (R-Tex) who became a co-sponsor November 14. The Ways and Means Committee set aside the bill and quietly ignored it and it died with the close of the 99th Session Of Congress in December 1986. 2006 . '' Witch Busters: A summary of anti-witchcraft activity in the 99th Congress ''. Last accessed 21 April 2006 . WICCAN TRADITIONS A "tradition" in Wicca refers to a branch of the religion with specific teachings and practices, often involving the concept of a lineage that is transferred by Initiation . There are many such traditions, sub-traditions and lineages; there are also many Solitary Wiccans who do not align themselves with any particular lineage. Some of the well-known traditions include:
A generally accepted and informative book describing the various "paths" within the American pagan community is ''. WICCA IN POPULAR FICTION While '' The Craft '', '' Buffy The Vampire Slayer '', '' Angel '', and '' Charmed '' contain references to Wicca, these are dramatic fiction and should not be taken as factual. SEE ALSO NOTES |
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