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Whitewater is formed in a Rapid , when a River 's Gradient drops enough to form a bubbly, or aerated and unstable current; the frothy water appears white. The term is also used loosely to refer to less-turbulent but still agitated flows. )]] RAPIDS Three factors, separately or in combination, can create rapids: gradient, constriction, and obstruction. The Gradient of a river is the rate at which it loses Elevation along its course. This loss determines the river's slope, and to a large extent its rate of flow. Shallow gradients produce gentle, slow rivers while steep gradients are associated with raging torrents. Constriction s can form a rapid when a river's flow is forced into a narrower channel. This pressure causes the water to flow more rapidly (hence the name) and to react differently to riverbed events (rocks, drops, etc.) Lastly, there is Obstruction . A boulder or ledge in the middle of a river or near the side can obstruct the flow of the river, and can also create a "drop" (over the boulder) and "hydraulics" or "holes" where the river flows back on itself--perhaps back under the drop--often with fearful results for those caught in its grasp. (Holes, or hydraulics, are so-called because their foamy, aerated water provides less buoyancy and can feel like an actual hole in the river surface.) If the flow passes next to the obstruction, an Eddy may form behind the obstruction; although eddies are typically sheltered areas where boaters can stop to rest, scout or leave the main current, they may be swirling and whirlpool-like. As with hydraulics (which are, essentially, eddies turned at a 90-degree angle), the power of eddies increases with the flow rate. These days the term "whitewater" has a broader meaning, applying to any river or creek that has a significant number of rapids. The term is also used as an adjective describing boating on such rivers, such as ''whitewater kayaking''. For information on racing in whitewater rapics, see Slalom Canoeing or Whitewater Racing . CLASSIFICATION OF WHITEWATER See Also: International Scale of River Difficulty The most widely used grading system is the '' International Grading System '', where whitewater (either an individual rapid, or the entire river) is classed in six categories from class I (the easiest and safest) to class VI (the most difficult and most dangerous). The grade reflects both the technical difficulty and the danger associated with a rapid, with grade I referring to flat or slow moving water with few hazards, and grade VI referring to the hardest rapids which are very dangerous even for expert paddlers, and are rarely run. Grade-VI rapids are sometimes downgraded to grade-V or V+ if they have been run successfully. Harder rapids (for example a grade-V rapid on a mainly grade-III river) are often '' Portage d'', a French term for carrying. A portaged rapid is where the boater lands and carries the boat around the hazard. A rapid's grade is not fixed, since it may vary greatly depending on the water depth and speed of flow. Although some rapids may be easier at high flows because features are covered or "washed-out," high water usually makes rapids more difficult and dangerous. At flood stage, even rapids which are usually easy can contain lethal and unpredictable hazards. (Briefly adapted from the American version of the International Scale of River Difficulty[http://www.thameswey.co.uk/articles/grading.htm .)
FEATURES FOUND IN WHITEWATER On any given rapid there can be a multitude of different features which arise from the interplay between the shape of the riverbed and the flowing water in the stream. Strainers Strainers are formed when an object blocks the passage of larger objects but allows the flow of water to continue - like a big Strainer . These objects can be very dangerous. Strainers are formed by many different objects, like storm grates over tunnels, trees that have fallen into a river ("log jam"), or rebar from broken concrete structures in the water. If in an emergency it is often best to try and climb on top of a strainer so as not to be pinned against the object under the water. Hydraulics s) and similar types of obstruction. In lowhead dams, the hydraulic has a very symmetrical character - there's no weak point - and where the sides of the hydraulic are often blocked by a man-made wall, making it impossible to slip off the side of the hydraulic. Lowhead dams are insidiously dangerous because their danger cannot be easily recognized by people who have not studied whitewater. Waves Wave s are formed in a similar nature to hydraulics and are sometimes also considered hydraulics as well. Waves are noted by the large smooth face on the water rushing down. Sometimes a particularly large wave will also be followed by a wave train, or a long series of waves. In fluid mechanics, waves are classified as laminar, but the whitewater world has also included waves with turbulence ("breaking waves") under the general heading of waves. Pillows Pillows are formed when a large flow of water runs into a large obstruction, causing water to boil up against the face of the obstruction. Pillows can be dangerous because sometimes the object that forms the pillow is undercut and so paddlers can be swept underwater - possibly to be entrapped. Eddies Eddies are formed, like hydraulics, on the downstream face of an obstruction. Unlike hydraulics, eddies swirl on the horizontal surface of the water. Typically, they are calm spots where the downward movement of water is partially or fully arrested - a nice place to rest or to make one's way upstream. However, in very powerful water, eddies can have powerful, swirling currents which can flip boats and from which escape can be very difficult. WHITEWATER CRAFT There are many different types of whitewater craft that people use to make their way down a rapid, preferably with finesse and control. Here is a short list of them. Whitewater Kayaks differ from sea kayaks and recreational kayaks in that they are specialized to deal with moving water better. They are often shorter and more maneuverable then sea kayaks and are specially designed to deal with water flowing up onto their decks. Most whitewater kayaks are made of plastics these days, although some paddlers (especially racers and "squirt boaters") use kayaks made of fiberglass composites. Whitewater kayaks are fairly stable in turbulent water, once the paddler is skillful with them; but once flipped upside-down, the skilled paddler can roll them back upright. This essential skill of whitewater kayaking is called the " Eskimo Roll ," or simply "Roll." Kayaks are paddled in a sitting position, with a two-bladed paddle. See Whitewater Kayaking . Raft s are also often used as a whitewater craft; more stable than typical kayaks, they are less maneuverable. Rafts can carry large loads, so they are often used for expeditions. Typical whitewater rafts are inflatable craft, made from plastic - much like an air mattress. See Whitewater Rafting . Cataraft s are similar to rafts, constructed from two inflatable pontoons on either side of the craft which are bridged by a support carriage where the occupants sit. Catarafts can be smaller and more maneuverable than many typical rafts. Canoe s are often made of fiberglass, kevlar, plastic or a combination of the three for strength and durability. They may have a spraycover, resembling a kayak, or "open," resembling the typical canoe. Whitewater canoes are paddled in a kneeling position, with a one-bladed paddle. Open whitewater Canoes have large airbags to prevent the boat from being swamped by big waves and holes. Like kayaks, whitewater canoes can be righted after an upset with an Eskimo Roll. ACADEMIC EXPLANATION OF WHITEWATER EVENTS See: NORTH AMERICAN WHITEWATER RIVERS Canada
United States Eastern rivers Rivers in the eastern section of the United States are usually considered "technical," which means that due to lesser water volume, rafters and kayakers must often direct their craft through boulder-strewn sections of river, through narrow channels and shoals. This requires a degree of "river reading" skill, paddling precision, and understanding of hazards such as undercut rocks and strainers. The following are some of the rivers in the northeast that are popular. Lehigh River, Whitehaven to Jim Thorpe, Class 3 Deleware River, NY State Class 1-2 Youghiogheny River, Pa. Class 3-4 Husatonic River, Conn. Class 1-2 Ten Mile River, NY Class 1-2 Esopus Creek, NY Class 2-3 Hudson River, North Creek, NY Class 4 Farmington River, Mass. Class 3 Some signature streams in the Southeastern United States include:
In the southeastern United States, there are several "stepping-stone" rivers for paddlers. For beginners, there is the Nantahala in North Carolina . It is a relatively gentle river, with the final rapid having the propensity to send paddlers in for a cold, exhilarating swim. The next level up is the Ocoee River, just west of Cleveland, Tennessee . The 1996 Olympic Canoe/Kayak Whitewater Slalom Competition was held on this world-class river. A special section was contructed for the venue, but the "lower" Ocoee is the classic ride that is almost continuously whitewater. The New River in West Virginia is the next step up. Its rapids are larger than those of the Ocoee, though they are separated by long flatwater pools. The Chattooga ( Sections 3 and 4) outside of Clayton, Georgia sports huge rapids, big drops, and thunderous power. This river can be a challenge for even experts. The Chattooga was one of the rivers used for the filming of the 1973 adventure movie, '' Deliverance ''. The Gauley River in West Virginia , especially at the "Fall Drawdown" (when the reservoir is drained) is a world-class ride. The Gauley has huge rapids, many of them listed as Class V. The Upper Gauley, from Summersville to Mason's Branch, is the tougher section; the Lower Gauley , from Koontz' Flume to Swiss, is still a Class-IV river with significant hazards. Navigating the Upper and Lower Gauley in a single day is called "the Gauley Marathon," twenty-four miles of big rapids and paddling. The Russell Fork Gorge is a river reserved for the most experienced rafters and kayakers. Located in Breaks Interstate Park on the border of Kentucky and Virginia , this river drops 150 feet per mile in the Gorge, which has been described as a continuous forty-five degree waterfall. The Russell Fork has dangerous rapids; even experienced paddlers have died in its many undercut rocks, and there have been many close calls.[http://www.americanwhitewater.org/accidents/search.php?accidentid=&compare_year=%3D&year=&country=&state=&river=Russell+Fork§ion=&location=&reachid=&compare_numvictims=%3D&numvictims=&victim=&artbody=&summary=&detaileddescription=&conclusions=&status=&search=Search] The Green Narrows is the steepest "creek run" with regular activity in the Eastern U.S. Regular, predictable releases from the Tuxedo Hydro Plant upstream draw paddlers on a regular basis. With a gradient that reaches 600 feet/mile over one short section, The Narrows is a series of blind waterfalls and tight slots. West Coast rivers In the western United States, the more noted rivers, such as the Grand Canyon have much greater water volume and therefore require a different set of paddling skills. Western rafters also navigate many small, low volume rivers, some with much steeper descents than eastern rivers; however, since the mountains are newer in the west, the hazard from undercut rocks, a problem in the east, is replaced by more frequent log jams precipitated by logging activities near the rivers. The big-water rivers usually do not require the precision paddling of smaller rivers, but have larger rapids and longer wilderness trips due to the greater length and water flow of the big rivers. The smaller rivers and creeks boated by most rafters offer many one- or two-day trips with difficulty levels from I to VI. In the West, some paddlers start on the American in California and work their way up to the Rogue and Illinois in Oregon , the Tuolomne (California), the Salmon in Idaho , the Snake, and then the big-water rivers like the Green and Colorado through the Grand Canyon ( Arizona ), the Fraser in British Columbia , and many Alaska n streams. = Colorado See Also: List of Colorado rivers
Cataract Canyon Varies in class from III to V. At over 50000 cubic feet per second Cataract Canyon becomes class V. The first 48 miles from Potash boat ramp are flat water. Four miles after the confluance of the Green and Colorado rivers Cataract Canyon begins. Major John Wesley Powell navigated the rapids in 1869 and gave Cataract Canyon its name. Cataract Canyon slices its way through Canyonlands National Park. Prior to becoming a National Park in 1964, Canyonlands and particularly Cataract Canyon was a "no man's land". French trapper Denis Julien made his way up the canyon in 1836 and left his inscription near the confluence or the Green and Colorado Rivers. In May and June spring runoff from The Unita, Wasatch, and the western fronts of the Rocky Mountains combines to create the some of the most exciting whitewater in North America. Flows have been gauged at over 110000 Cubic feet per Second in 1984. This is much larger than in the Grand Canyon where water is released from the Glen Canyon Dam and therefore regulated. In an average year Cataract Canyon will peak at 35000 cubic feet per second which creates 32 rapids (depending on water levals in Lake Powell). At over 50000 cubic feet per second the rapids from rapid 14 through rapid 24 form some of the most awe inspiring whitewater in North America.
=Idaho See Also: List of Idaho rivers
=Montana See Also: List of Montana rivers
=Wyoming See Also: List of Wyoming rivers
EUROPEAN WHITEWATER RIVERS United Kingdom Whitewater rivers in the UK are typically low volume and technical. In England and Wales rivers are typically less than 20 m³/s, and some are run with less than 1 m³/s (usually these involve skidding the kayak down steep rockslides and small waterfalls). In Scotland there are also a few bigger volume (up to about 50 m³/s) rivers. Almost all runs in England and Wales need recent rain to be at a paddleable level, and many can only be run immediately after heavy rain. In Scotland some bigger rivers can be run for weeks after rain although as with the rest of the country, most need recent wet weather. The paddling season is year-round but the rivers are more often runnable in winter (the wettest months of the year being December and January). Most runs offer only a few kilometres of whitewater; often several rivers can be run on a wet day. Some rivers consist of only a single rapid. Only a few rivers (such as the Findhorn and Spean in the Scottish Highlands) have more than a days' worth of paddling, and most of this tends to be grade III or less. There is no natural whitewater in the (mainly flat) south and east of England. Here whitewater paddlers often go Playboating at man made Weir s. Hurley Weir on the River Thames west of London is probably the most popular. There are several Artificial Whitewater courses, where water is pumped or diverted though a concrete channel containing obstacles to create rapids. There is a 28 m³/s artificial whitewater course on the Trent at Holme Pierrepont in Nottingham (at the National Watersports Centre ), a 5 m³/s course on the Tees in Teesside , and smaller courses on the Nene at Northampton , and at Cardington. Commercial rafting is limited to artificial whitewater courses (where it often provides the majority of the courses' income) and a few of the bigger and more reliable rivers, in particular the Afon Tryweryn and the Orchy . There are several sites off the west coast of Britain where strong tidal currents channeled between islands create big volume sections of whitewater. These include the Bitches in Pembrokeshire in Wales, and the Falls Of Lora on the west coast of Scotland. Legal access to whitewater is a big issue in England and Wales. The public are only allowed access to a tiny proportion of the available whitewater, and often this is restricted to a few months or even a few days per year. This limits commercial operations and the activities of clubs, but many individual kayakers still paddle illegally. Rivers are almost all private and access must be agreed with all of the Riparian Owners (the owners of the land either side of the river) and the owners of the fishing rights, otherwise canoeing or kayaking there is Trespass (although landowners can do little other than tell trespassers to leave their property). Agreements rarely exist as there is no incentive for the owners of rivers to let anyone else use them. In Scotland, like most of the rest of the world, access to whitewater is legal and has never been illegal. It has been enshrined in law in the recent Scottish Land Reform act. The Right To Roam act in England explicitly excluded rivers. Alps Popular whitewater rivers in the Alps are mainly medium volume Glacier -fed rivers with long continuous rapids and few big drops. The season is short (two or three months in early summer when the snow and glaciers are melting) but the whitewater is reliable in this period. Tourists come from around Europe to kayak and raft--the most popular centres are Briançon in the French Alps , and the area around Landeck in Austria . Whitewater in Norway Norwegian whitewater rivers are typically steep pool-drop rivers with many waterfalls, and are run mainly by experienced kayakers. There are also bigger (sometimes glacier-fed) rivers which are sometimes rafted. The season lasts all summer, although some rivers only run after recent rain. Norwegian waterfalls regularly feature on extreme kayaking videos. SEE ALSO EXTERNAL LINKS
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