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''Res publica'' is a Latin phrase, made of ''res'' + ''publica'', literally meaning "public thing". It is the origin of the word ' Republic '. ETYMOLOGY The word ''publica'' is the feminine singular of the 1st- and 2nd-declension adjective ''publicus, publica, publicum'', which is itself derived from an earlier form, ''poplicus''—"relating to the populus {Link without Title} ". ''res'' is the nominative singular of the 5th-declension feminine noun ''res'', ''rei'' meaning "thing", "matter", "business" or "affair". The Romans often wrote the two words as one, ''respublica'' and inflected both words. RES PUBLICA IN ANCIENT ROME Already in Ancient Rome ''Res publica'' was a mixed-bag concept, maybe even more than the derivative " Republic " would become many centuries later. The ancient meaning of the expression is clarified with some definitions and quotes. Basic meaning(s) "Public property" ''Res publica'' usually refers to a thing that is not considered to be Private Property , but which is rather held in common by many people. For instance a park or garden in the city of Rome could either be "private property", or managed by the state, in which case it would be (part of the) ''res publica''. "The state" - "The Commonwealth" Taking everything together that is of public interest leads to the connotation that "the" res publica in general equals "the" state. For Romans this equalled of course also the Imperium Romanum , and all its interests, so ''Res Publica'' could as well refer to the '' Roman Empire '' as a whole (regardless of whether it was governed as a '' Republic '' or under Imperial Reign ). In this context scholars suggest " Commonwealth " as a more accurate and neutral translation of the term, while neither implying ''republican'' nor ''imperial'' connotations, just a reference to the state as a whole. But even translating ''res publica'' as "republic" when it clearly refers to the Roman Empire ''under Imperial reign'' occurs (see quotes below). "The (Roman) Republic" Roman authors would also use the word ''res Publica'' In The Sense Of The ''epoch'' when Rome was governed as a republic, that is the epoch between the Roman Kingdom and the Roman Empire . So in this case ''res publica'' does distincly ''not'' refer to the Roman ''Empire'', but to what is generally described as the Roman Republic . "Public affairs" - "state organisation system" - "politics" ''Res publica'' could also be used in a generic meaning, referring to "public affairs" and/or the general system of government of a state. In this usage ''res publica'' translated the Greek concept '' Politeia '' (which originally meant the state organisation of a ''city''-state ). Also, for a Roman politician engaging himself in the ''res publica'', a translation can often be the even more generic ''being occupied in "politics"''. More connotations Even when limited to its "political" connotations, the meanings of the term ''res publica'' in ancient Rome are diverse and multi-layered, and differing from the Greek ''politeia'' in many ways (that is: from the several interwoven meanings the word ''politeia'' had). It is however from this meaning that the modern name of Plato's ''The Republic'' comes. In some contexts the "state organisation system" meaning of ''res publica'' derives into something like "constitution", although "constitution", properly speaking, is a much more modern concept. Ancient Romans would use the expression " Twelve Tables " instead of ''res publica'', when referring to their constitution at the time of the "republic", and the "inalterable laws installed by the divine Augustus", for their equivalent of a constitution in the era of the early Empire. Quotes The translations of the quotes below are copied without alteration from existing non-copyrighted material. Other translations might differ, but they all serve to illustrate the many aspects of the ''res publica'' concept in Ancient Rome. The Latin original texts are given concurrently with the translations, in order to show that only the ''context'' of the text allows to interpret the ''res publica'' concept in each instance. From these examples it also follows that probably there was also a gradual shift of meaning of the ''res publica'' concept throughout the Roman Era : the "(Roman) Republic" connotation of ''res publica'' is something that rather occurs ''with retrospect'' to a closed period (so ''less'' appararent in Cicero's time, who never knew the era of the Emperors, and could only compare with the epoch of the Kings); on the other hand the ''translation of the Greek "politeia" concept'' appears to have nearly completely worn of in late antiquity. Cicero Cicero 's ''De re publica'', a treatise of the 1st Century BC in Socratic Dialogue format, takes the ''res publica'' as its subject. The differing interpretations and translations of the ''title'' of that work are discussed in the " De Re Publica " article. The expression ''res publica'' is of course used several times throughout the work too. The quotes below aim at demonstrating that ''within any translation'' of Cicero's work differing English translations of the term ''res publica'' need to be used, according to ''context'', in order to make sense. The quotes are taken from the Latin text at "The Latin Library" (chapter numbering follows this text), from C. D. Yonge's translation at gutenberg.org (2nd column) and from Francis Barham's translation at "The Online Library of Liberty" (3rd column). When Cicero refers to the Greek authors (pointing at the "politeia" concept): When pointing at the ''Roman'' context: The translation shows that the meaning of ''res publica'' can differ ''even within the same paragraph''... Pliny the Elder When Pliny dedicates his '' translation from http://penelope.uchicago.edu/holland/index.html / 1855 John Bostock translation from the Perseus website ): When under an ''Emperor'', that is Vespasian or his predecessors, Pliny was not talking about the Roman Republic , but used "commonweale"/"republic" in the meaning of "the state". Of course the ambiguity of Rome still considering itself formally, or just "pro forma", a republic throughout the era of the Principate , when a monarchic rule had already de facto been established, adds to the complexity of translating "res publica" in this context. Tacitus As another example of the complexities of the meaning of the word ''res publica'' one can cite Tacitus , who in the early 2nd Century described in his '' Annals '' how the first Emperor s, like Tiberius in the year Augustus had died (AD 14 ), sought to preserve all institutions of the ''Res publica'' completely intact ( Latin and translation as available at the Perseus Project ): ... while Tacitus complained in the same writing that at the same time the ''res publica'' went astray for good because not a single soul seemed to care any more: The least that can be said is that the two quotes above (like so many passages in Tacitus' writings) are a translator's minefield:
Nonetheless it can only be admired in Tacitus how, with some judicially chosen words, he most poignantly and to the point describes the transition from "(overdue) remnants of the republic" to "actual Imperial reign, already established in the minds of people". Augustine , English translation from the version available at "New Advent" Meaning "the (Roman) state" in general: Note that in this quote Augustine does ''not'' use the expression ''imperium Romanum'' ("the Roman empire") as a synonym to "the era when Rome was governed by emperors". Compare also to the 2nd quote from Tacitus above: there an expression ''different'' from ''res publica'' and ''imperium Romanum'' is used for referring to "the (Roman) State" in general. Meaning "the Roman Republic" as ''era'' with a distinct form of state organisation, from the same book: Note that Sylla ( Lucius Cornelius Sulla ) lived in an age of Civil War s, receiving the official Roman Dictator title for limited periods. CALQUES Later Calque s of ''Res publica'', some of which originated in the Renaissance , include:
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