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This entry primarily discusses some of the general attributes of legal education in the United States for those who intend to use their degree in order to become legal professionals. LEGAL EDUCATION GENERALLY Legal education encompasses both academic and vocational studies. In order to obtain a law Degree , students are required to acquire an academic grounding in the legal system of their jurisdiction. In order to practice as lawyers they are sometimes also required to demonstrate that they have learned professional skills, for example advocacy and analysis. In some countries the two elements are both included with the law degree programme, while in other the vocational element of legal education is separate from and undertaken after the acquisition of an academic degree. In the United States, vocational study can be a part of a legal education, but is usually not gained until one has actually begun practicing law -- education tends to be formal, doctrinal, and theoretical. In addition to the qualifications required to became a practising lawyer, legal education also encompasses higher degrees such as doctorates, for more advanced academic study. In many countries other than the United States, law is an undergraduate degree. Graduates of such a program are eligible to become lawyers by passing the country's equivalent of a Bar Exam . In such countries, graduate programs in law enable students to embark on academic careers or become specialized in a particular area of law. In the United States , law is a Graduate degree, which students embark upon only after completing an undergraduate degree in some other field (usually a Bachelor's Degree ), and is considered to be a graduate or Professional School program. The undergraduate degree can be in any field, though most American lawyers hold bachelor's degrees in the humanities and social sciences. American law schools are usually an autonomous entity within a larger university. Faculty of law is another name for a Law School or School Of Law , the terms commonly used in the United States. This term is used in Canada , other Commonwealth countries and the rest of the world. It may be distinguishable from law school in the sense that a faculty is a subdivision of a university on the same rank with other faculties, i.e. faculty of medicine, faculty of graduate studies, whereas a law school or school of law may have a more autonomous status within a university, or may be totally independent of any other post-secondary educational institution. In addition in some countries, including the United Kingdom , the final stages of vocational legal education required to qualify to practice law are carried out outside the university system. The requirements for qualification as a Barrister or as a Solicitor are covered in those articles. See Advocate for details of the requirements for qualification as an advocate in Scotland . UNITED STATES (The following information can also be found cross-listed at "Education of Lawyers in the United States") The Education of Lawyers in the United States is generally undertaken through a Law School program. The professional degree granted by U.S. law schools is the Juris Doctor or Doctor of Jurisprudence (J.D.). Once a prospective lawyer has been awarded the J.D. (or other appropriate degree), he or she must pass a state Bar Examination in order to be licensed to practice as an Attorney At Law . The Juris Doctor (J.D.), like the Doctor of Medicine (M.D.), is a professional doctorate. The Doctor of Jurisprudence (J.S.D.), Doctor of Judicial Science (S.J.D.), and Doctor of Comparative Law (D.C.L.), are research and academic-based doctorate level degrees. In the U.S. the Legum Doctor (LL.D.) is only awarded as an honorary degree. Academic degrees for non-lawyers are available at the baccalaureate and master's level. A common baccalaureate level degree is a Bachelor of Science in Legal Studies (B.S.). Academic master's degrees in legal studies are available, such as the Master of Studies (M.S.), and the Master of Professional Studies (M.P.S.). Foreign lawyers seeking to practice in the U.S., who do not have a Juris Doctor (J.D.), often seek to obtain a Juris Master (J.M.), Master of Laws (LL.M.), Master of Comparative Law (M.C.L.), or a Master of Jurisprudence (M.J.). Legal education in the United States normally proceeds along the following route:
Law School NOTE: Much of the information in this section can also be found at Law School In The United States . A law school is an institution where prospective Lawyer s obtain legal degrees. In the ''' United States ''', law is a Graduate degree, the pursuit of which students undertake only after having completed an undergraduate degree in some other field (usually a Bachelor's Degree ). The law school program is considered to be a graduate or Professional School program. The undergraduate degree can be in any field, though most American lawyers hold bachelor's degrees in the humanities and social sciences. American law schools are usually an autonomous entity within a larger university. In most other countries, law is an undergraduate degree and graduates of such a program are eligible to become lawyers by passing the country's equivalent of a Bar Exam . In such countries, graduate programs in law enable students to embark on academic careers or become specialized in a particular area of law. In most cases the degree awarded by American law schools is the '' Juris Doctor '', or J.D., degree. In contrast, the LL.B. degree is still the standard qualification in other Common Law jurisdictions, mostly in the Commonwealth Of Nations . Other, higher, degrees that are awarded include the Master Of Laws degree ( LL.M. ) and the Doctor of Juridical Science degree (J.S.D. or S.J.D.). Accreditation In order to sit for the Bar Exam , the vast majority of state bar associations requires that an applicant's law school ''must'' be approved by the American Bar Association . The ABA has promulgated detailed requirements covering every aspect of a law school, down to the precise contents of the law library. California is the most famous exception to the rule. The State Bar Of California 's Committee of Bar Examiners accredits many schools which would not qualify for ABA accreditation (due to low admission standards, lack of a full law library, or nonstandard academic calendar). Graduates of such schools can sit for the bar exam in California, and once they have passed that exam, a large number of states allow those students to sit for their bars (either immediately or after practicing for a certain number of years in California). California is also the first state to allow graduates of online law schools to take its bar exam. Curriculum Law students are referred to as ''1L''s, ''2L''s, and ''3L''s, based on their year of study. In the United States, the American Bar Association does not mandate a particular curriculum for ''1L''s. ABA Standard 302(a)(1) requires only the study of "substantive law" that will lead to "effective and responsible participation in the legal profession." However, most law schools have their own mandatory curriculum which typically includes: These basic courses are intended to provide an overview of the broad study of law. Not all ABA-approved law schools offer all of these courses in the 1L year; a significant number of schools do not require constitutional law and/or criminal law. Some schools roll legal research and legal writing into a single year-long "lawyering skills" course, which may also include a small oral argument component. After the first year, law students are generally free to pursue different fields of legal study, such as Administrative Law , Corporate Law , International Law , Admiralty Law , Intellectual Property Law , and Tax Law . The ABA also requires that all students at ABA-approved schools take a course in Professional Responsibility (ethics). The course is typically an upper-level course, most often taken in the 2L year. This requirement was added after the Watergate scandal, which seriously damaged the public image of the profession, because of the fact that President Richard Nixon and most of his alleged cohorts were lawyers. The ABA hoped to demonstrate that the legal profession could regulate itself (and also hoped to prevent direct federal regulation of the profession). As of 2004, to ensure that students' research and writing skills do not deteriorate, the ABA has added an upper division writing requirement. Law students must take at least one course as a 2L or 3L that requires the writing of a paper for credit. Many non-lawyers are surprised to learn that most legal education does not consist of memorizing statutes. Legal education is about "learning to think like a lawyer" -- that is, learning the analytical skills it takes to succeed as a lawyer. While familiarity with the basic doctrines of important and basic areas of law is important because it provides a stepping stone to deeper doctrinal learning, the aim of these course is less about learning doctrine than it is about learning how to analyze legal problems, learning to read cases, learning to distill facts and apply law to facts. Legal education focuses on skill-learning, not law-learning. Many of the top schools in the United States are much more interested in teaching students legal theory and analysis than they are in the specific doctrines or "black letter law." Top schools, though often possessing excellent clinical programs (that is, progams -- like a Guantánamo Detainee clinic or a Tax clinic -- that give students hands on experience with actual clients and cases), emphasize theory over practice for several reasons. First, these schools often train legal academics, who will be teaching future lawyers. Second, professors at these schools are often interested in questions of legal theory and legal reform, a were themselves often not practitioners. Third, these schools often have the most prestigious journals, and students are encouraged to enagage in scholarship in order to publish in these journals. However, clinical education is very important, and many schools differentiate themselves with excellent clinical programs. Moreover, students often seek out clinical programs because doctrinal courses offer little in the way of practical training. In 1968, the Ford Foundation began disbursing $12 million to persuade Law School s to make "law school clinics" part of their curriculum. Clinics were intended to give practical experience in law practice while providing '' Pro Bono '' representation to the poor. However, Conservative critics charge that the clinics have been used instead as an avenue for the professors to engage in Left-wing Political activism. Critics cite the financial involvement of the Ford Foundation as the turning point when such clinics began to change from giving practical experience to engaging in advocacy.Heather Mac Donald. "Clinical, Cynical." '' Wall Street Journal .'' January 11 , 2006 ; Page A14. As well, many law students participate in Internship programs during their course of study. S Finally, it should be noted that the emphasis in law schools is almost never on the law of the particular state in which the law school sits, but on the state of the law generally throughout the country (contract law at the University of North Carolina, then, will focus not on contracts in North Carolina, but on the law of contracts generally). Although this makes studying for the bar more of a hassle -- since one must learn state-specific law -- the emphasis on legal skills over legal knowledge does serve lawyers well in the long run. Pedagogical methods Most law school education in the United States is based on standards developed by Christopher Columbus Langdell and James Barr Ames at Harvard Law School during the mid- 1800s . Professors generally lead in-class debates over the issues in selected court cases, compiled into " Casebooks " for each course. Most law professors choose not to lecture extensively, and instead use the Socratic Method to force students to teach each other based on their individual understanding of legal theory and the facts of the case at hand. Examinations usually entail interpreting the facts of a hypothetical case, determining how legal theories apply to the case, and then writing an essay. This process is intended to train students in the reasoning methods necessary to interpret theories, Statute s, and Precedent s correctly, and argue their validity, both orally and in writing. In contrast, most Civil Law countries base their legal education on professorial lectures and oral examinations, which are more suited for the mastery of complicated Civil Code s. This style of teaching is often discomforting to first-year law students who are more accustomed to taking notes from professors' lectures. Most that concisely summarize the basic concepts of each area of law, and good outlines are highly sought after by many students, although some professors discourage their use. Admissions There are 193 ABA-accredited law schools in the United States. When individuals apply for admission, they must usually meet the following requirements:
Note: Some states that have non-ABA-approved schools or state-accredited schools have equivalency requirements that usually equal 90 credits toward a bachelor's degree. Because applying to law school is a highly competitive process, schools often make their admissions decisions based on numerical criteria: high grades and high LSAT scores. Many of the top schools require GPA's of 3.3 or above (a school like Harvard and Yale regularly require GPA's of 3.7 or better), and LSAT's of 160 (out of 180) or above (Harvard and Yale often require scores of 170 or better -- a score of 170 is a score in the 99th percentile of all LSAT takers). For admission data from real applicants for this application cycle visit lawschoolnumbers.com . Many have criticized the heavy emphasis of the LSAT in law school admissions, as scores on the test have been shown in LSAC studies to be weakly correlated with first year law school grades {Link without Title} . However, there is no known ''single'' measurement that is more strongly correlated, and for most North American law schools, the correlation between undergraduate GPA and first year performance is statistically insignificant. The test measures not legal knowledge, but legal "thinking" -- reading comprehension and logical analysis. It is also a way of normalizing grades from students applying from different schools. A 3.9 from a school admissions officers have little familiarity with might carry less weight if the LSAT score comes in very low. A 3.3 at another school might be negated by a particularly high LSAT score. Most North American law schools use an admissions index, which is a simple mathematical formula which applies a multiple to undergraduate GPA and adds the LSAT score to normalize all applicants. These two variables in tandem have been found to be more highly correlated with first year law school peformance than either measure alone. Individual factors are also very important, although applicants are virtually never asked to interview as part of the application process. Such factors are evaluated through other application materials, and while these factors can compensate for a low GPA and/or LSAT score, where they are weak they can also detract from high scores. Many law schools actively seek applicants from outside the traditional pool in order to boost campus Diversity , both racial and economic. Most law schools now factor in extracurricular activities, work experience, and unique courses of study in their evaluation of applicants. A growing number of law school applicants have several years of work experience, and correspondingly fewer law students enter immediately after completing their undergraduate education (for example, at the University of California, Hastings College of Law, for the Class of 2008, the average age of an entering first year law student was 25; most college graduates come directly from high school and are approximately 21 or 22 when they receive their undergraduate degree). Some have criticized law school admissions offices for not requiring -- as medical schools do -- interviews. This criticism, however, is slightly misplaced. Although the public perception of lawyers is that they are in the courtroom wooing juries, in reality many lawyers are researchers and writers, spending long hours in front of a computer and in a library. The most highly prized asset a lawyer has is not usually his or her winning charm and interpersonal skills: it is thoroughness and thoughtfulness, coupled with an ability to communicate clearly in writing. In considering law school, potential students should consider the advantages and disadvantages of lawyering and the law school experience. Many books are available about the realities of law school and lawyering. Before entering law school, potential students should also talk to both attorneys and law students about their experiences and recommendations. Students considering law school should note that although law school tuition is notoriously high, it is not uncommon for law students to receive grants and Scholarships , or more rarely complete Tuition waivers, from their schools. While each school's Financial Aid system operates differently, there is a rule of thumb relating to GPA and LSAT scores: a student whose grades and LSAT are distinctly higher than those of most students admitted to a given school--in other words, a student who could get into a "better" school--has a good chance of being offered some kind of scholarship by the lower-ranked school. Top Tier Law Schools Law schools are ranked by many different organizations, dividing US law schools into various and informal strata. These rankings, for example the “ U.S. News And World Report ’s Top 100 Law Schools” and “The Leiter Reports ”, attempt to analyze certain qualitative factors (such as faculty publishing statistics, entering student LSAT scores) and generate their rankings from this data. Almost all of these rankings, however, are contentious, and none are accepted as authoritative. However, while there is no universally-accepted and precise ranking of each law school in the nation, there seems to be an organic sense in the profession as to which schools occupy the top of the list, and which are at the bottom; this has created a tier-based approach to how the quality of every law school is seen in the eyes of the legal community. Generally, graduates of schools that occupy the top tier will find the most promising and geographically diverse employment opportunities upon graduation. Typically, the most prestigious opportunities in the country (U.S. Supreme Court Clerks, for example) are filled by graduates of Yale, Stanford, Harvard, Columbia, and Chicago (though students at the rest of the top schools will, infrequently, also fill the ranks of these elite positions). As one moves down the “ranking” of the law schools, the less prestigious the opportunities that await the school’s graduates – this is, in essence, the only importance in conceiving of a ranking for law schools, the exit opportunities available to an institution's students. =Regional tiers The majority of law schools, with the exception of the most highly-regarded institutions noted above, are more regional in scope and often have very strong regional connections to these post-graduation opportunities. A law school, for example, may carry little national weight and be considered a lower-tier school by some ranking measures, but a student graduating with an exemplary record will most likely find excellent opportunities in that school’s “home market”: the legal market containing many of that school’s alumni, where most of the school’s networking and career development energies are focused. Alternatively, a law school may have appreciable national exposure (and be considered upper-tier by these same ranking measures) but be similarly limited in terms of employment opportunities to the broad geographic region that the law school feeds. =Unaccredited schools. Many schools are not accredited by the American Bar Association. Most are located in California and authorized by the California Department of Education. Credentials obtainable while in law school Within each U.S. law school, key credentials include:
Criticism of American Law Schools The law school curriculum ironically results in lawyers who, in the opinion of some experts, are ill-prepared for the realities of lawyering. Although students may know how to do legal research, they are not trained in dealing with clients, opposing counsel or how to navigate the court system. Some schools offer courses in negotiation, discovery procedures, trial advocacy and argument; however, these lawyering skills are mostly learned on the job. Most law school courses, especially in the first year, only administer one exam that is the basis for the entirety of the student's grade. In the case of the First Year, one exam tests a year's worth of knowledge since most classes span the academic year. A criticism of this system is that it is inherently inaccurate. First, the exams are essay and therefore subject to the professor's whims, interpretations and even mood. Second, keeping the entirety of the grade focused on one moment shows no arc of growth and learning, nor does it parse topical strengths and weaknesses (beneficial to both employer and student). Third, if a student falls ill, or encounters personal trauma around the exam date, then her one-shot ability to prove herself is seriously compromised. Fourth, the ability to consider a complex legal question in depth, to use one's imagination and turn over legal rocks that are not initially apparent (a quality any client prizes), is underserved in a three- or four-hour proctored exam. Closed book exams exacerbate this problem, and they are impractical and unrelated to how law is practiced where the ability to reference law is essential to formulating an answer to a client's problem. Fifth, critics charge that the most serious consequence of this one-exam-per-course method is to concentrate extreme pressure on students at the end of the semester, whereas administering staggered exams incentivizes preparation and alerts students of their understanding of the material against the professor's expectations. This better educates a student and spreads out the pressure, making it more manageable. Critics charge that the current structure does not mirror the ethical philosophy nor the practice of law. Critics also charge that the Socratic Method has fallen into disuse, and little debate occurs in law school classrooms, which are mostly lectures. The faculty at American law schools do not have to answer to the needs of students since their career advancement rests solely on publishing and peer review. Rare is the school where the ability to teach students, and the students' input into the professor's classroom experience, is given enough consideration as to determine the tenure status of a professor. "In fact, law students learn their subjects on their own. With few exceptions, students avoid faculty as faculty avoid students. The wonderful opportunity to use the classroom as a laboratory to debate and review in an atmosphere that encourages critical thinking is lost." William I. Weston, Law Schools, Heal Thyself, 15 ABA Prof. Law. 24 Critics note the cost of legal education in the United States has made it out of reach for many poor or indebted people, and that applying for enough grants and loans to cover the cost is burdensome enough to discourage many qualified applicants from applying. For these people who enter school regardless, the financial struggle can often take a toll on a student's grades. It also limits the choice of employment for graduates, with many needing to work for large firms to pay their loan and credit card debt. Critics further charge that law schools are run as businesses with eyes on expansion and reputation, and not enough focus on the students and community they are meant to serve. Because of higher tuition, steady or declining grants and state aid, and a greater dependency on loans, the average student's debt has increased by more than 50 percent over the last decade, after accounting for inflation, according to the U.S. Department of Education. ''Chicago Tribune'', In Debt, Forever, March 5, 2006 A further criticism is that the third year of a juris doctor program is unnecessary, and would be better served in full legal employment. State and federal court clerkship On the basis of a student's credentials, as well as favorable faculty recommendations, some students obtain a one or two-year clerkship with a judge after graduation. Clerkships may be with state or federal judges. Clerkships are meant to provide the recent law school graduate (note: some clerks do not begin their clerkship until a few years of work in private practice, but this is somewhat rare) with experience working for a judge. Often, clerks engage in significant legal research and writing for the judge, writing memos to assist a judge in coming to a legal conclusion in some cases, and writing drafts of opinions based on the judge's decisions. Appellate court clerkships, although generally more prestigious, do not necessarily give one a great deal of practical experience in the day-to-day life of a lawyer in private practice. The average litigator might get much more out of a clerkship at the trial court level, where he or she will be learning about motions practices, dealing with lawyers, and generally learning how a trial court works on the inside. What a lawyer might lose in prestige he or she might gain in experience. By and large, though, clerkships provide other valuable assets to a young lawyer. Judges often become mentors to young clerks, providing the young attorney with an experienced individual to whom he or she can go for advice. Fellow clerks can also become lifelong friends and/or professional connections. Those contemplating academia do well to obtain an appellate court clerkship at the federal level, since those clerkships provide a great opportunity to think at a very high level about the law. Clerkships are great experiences for the new lawyers, and law schools encourage graduates to engage in a clerkship to broaden their professional experiences. United States Supreme Court clerkship Some law school graduates are able to clerk for one of the Justices on the Supreme Court (each Justice takes 4 clerks per year). Often, these clerks are graduates of elite law schools, with Harvard, Yale, and the University of Chicago being the most highly represented schools Brian Leiter , Supreme Court Clerkship Placement, 1991 Through 2005 Terms , ''Leiter's Law School Rankings'', ''Accessed April 26, 2006''. All Supreme Court clerks are required to have clerked in a lower court, often for a year with a highly selective federal circuit court judge (such as Judges Alex Kozinski, Michael Lutting, Harvey Wilkinson, David Tatel, Richard Posner, to name a few). It is perhaps the most highly selective and prestigious title a lawyer can have, and Supreme Court clerks are often highly sought after by law firms, the government, and law schools. The vast majority of Supreme Court clerks either become academics at elite law schools, enter private practice as appellate attorneys, or take highly selective government positions. Admission to the Bar Requirements for admission to the Bar vary across the United States . Standard Requirements In order for a person to be admitted to the and Washington . In addition, all but a handful of jurisdictions require that the applicant have earned a law degree from an American Bar Association -accredited Law School . The state of Wisconsin grants a "diploma privilege" to students who graduate from any accredited Law School within the state. This "diploma privilege" makes those students exempt from taking the bar exam; and, if they have earned acceptable grades in core areas of the law, they are allowed to become members of the Wisconsin Bar Association without taking either the multi-state or essay exam as all other applicants must do. Many American states also granted a similar privilege at the beginning of the 20th century, but gradually withdrew it under pressure from bar associations. Special Requirements in Patent Law After passing the bar, a lawyer may practice any type of law in that state, except for filing Patent applications. Lawyers who wish to become a Patent Attorney must not only take the state bar exam but also must pass the United States Patent And Trademark Office (USPTO) registration examination, commonly known as the "patent bar." However, this qualification is not necessary to advise clients on patent law or to litigate patent issues in court. Furthermore, to be a patent ''agent'', a law degree is not required, but a patent agent may not hold himself out as a licensed Attorney . Regarding technical knowledge, the USPTO requires an undergraduate technical degree (certain sciences, engineering or similar fields) or demonstrable equivalent work experience. In practice, because virtually all patent lawyers have ''at least'' a relevant four-year degree and ''many'' have graduate technical degrees, it would be almost impossible for someone without such a degree to find employment as a patent lawyer. Legal ethics rules prohibit lawyers from using the title "patent attorney" unless they are admitted to practice before the USPTO. These additional requirements make patent attorneys very rare and are in high demand by many companies, making a starting salary of $120,000 quite average. Most patent lawyers have a masters or doctorate in science or engineering in addition to the Juris Doctor degree. Benefits of admission A successful applicant is permitted to practice law. Upon admission, a new lawyer is issued a certificate of admission from the state's highest court and a membership card attesting to admission. In some states, e.g., Texas and California (but not New York), new lawyers are also issued a unique bar association identification number. In certain jurisdictions where the unauthorized practice of law is a serious problem (e.g., California), the state bar number must appear on all documents submitted by a lawyer, to enable the court to confirm that the lawyer is a member of the bar in good standing. Interstate Admission Some jurisdictions permit the admission of an applicant who is already admitted to the bar of another state. This sort of admission may or may not be dependent on whether the jurisdiction to which the applicant is already admitted offers reciprocity to other jurisdictions, ''i.e.,'' whether the jurisdiction itself allows attorneys in without admission. Some states zealously pride themselves on the exclusivity of their admissions process and therefore do not offer reciprocity of any kind. Other jurisdictions allow admission to presently practicing lawyers upon the successful completion of a limited examination on procedure and/or Ethics . Admission to Practice in the Federal courts United States District Court s (Federal trial courts) condition their admissions policies on those of the state in which they are located. Generally speaking, a Federal District Court will admit a lawyer to practice provided that he or she is already admitted to practice in that state. Thus, for example, a lawyer admitted in California may automatically be admitted to the bar of a Federal court in California, but could likely not automatically gain admission to a Federal court in neighboring Oregon. Other U.S. Federal courts, such as the U.S. Supreme Court , the U.S. Court Of Federal Claims , or the U.S. Court Of Veterans Appeals have open admissions policies, allowing bar admission to attorneys licensed anywhere in the country. Lack of Apprenticeship The American legal system is unique in that, with two exceptions, it has ''no'' formal apprenticeship or clinical training requirements ''between'' the period of academic legal training and the bar exam, or even after the bar exam. The two exceptions are Delaware and Vermont , which require that candidates for admission serve a full-time clerkship of at least five months in the office of a lawyer previously admitted in that state before being eligible to take the oath of admission. Many law schools have tried to rectify this lack of experience by requiring supervised "Public Service Requirements" of all graduates, see Brandeis School of Law (University of Louisville) Public Service Requirement In most states, therefore, anyone with a J.D. (or equivalent experience in the states that allow it) may immediately take the bar exam and be admitted to the bar, and then may immediately seek out clients and start filing papers with a court. The current system has been heavily criticized, since clients often end up subsidizing the apprenticeship of young lawyers. =Salaries The salary of a lawyer varies depending on the legal market, whether the lawyer has had a clerkship or worked in government, and whether the lawyer works at a large firm. The typical salary of an entry-level lawyer in a large, presitigious firm in a big city is approximately $125,000, before bonus (note: law firms in Los Angeles and New York are increasing their salaries, with Sullivan & Cromwell in New York recently increasing their entry level salary base to $145,000, before bonus, to entry level attorneys). With a federal court clerkship, entry level attorneys can expect two things: first, to receive a signing bonus of about $25,000 at a prestigious law firm; and second, to enter a prestigious law firm as a second-year associate (or third, if the attorney has clerked for two year). Attorneys who clerk at the Supreme Court can expect bonuses of close to $200,000 if they enter an elite firm, on top of their salary. Aside from the largest firms, however, salaries vary. The average starting salary for a newly-minted attorney in a smaller firm or in a smaller legal market, in private practice, not working at a big firm, range from $35-90,000 (dependent partly on the cost of living in the locale where the firm is located). Public interest attorneys, government lawyers, and public defenders often start between $25-60,000. Length of typical workweek at "megafirms" The "superstar" salaries and sign-up bonuses offered by megafirms have a downside—at most "megafirms" the standard workweek is about 80 hours. For this reason, most law graduates only stay at these "megafirms" a few years. In addition, very few starting associates make partner in firms of that size. Those who do not are usually shown the door and given a hearty, "Thanks for all your hard work these past (7-8) years," and, "Good luck! Let us know when you get a new job." Morale at a number of these megafirms is often reported to be very low. But this varies. Some firms, even though associates might work long hours, do boast high levels of satisfaction. As well, many young attorneys do not necessarily see their first few years at a law firm as the beginning of a lifetime in a firm. Many young attorneys see the firm as a way to start out, and reassess before the partnership decision is made. Some start their own practice, move to a smaller legal market, teach, go into government, or leave the law. A legal education offers many options. Common earnings Per the U.S Department of Labor Occupational Outlook Handbook median earnings in 2004 for US attorneys was $94,930, with the middle 50% earning between $64,620 and $143,620. Less than 10% of lawyers in 2002 made above $150,000. Earnings in the public sector are typically lower than what is found in the private sector. Many sources also indicate the high level of stress and “culture of hours” common in the legal profession leads to a lower level of job satisfaction relative to many other careers. CANADA In Canada , the situation is somewhere between that of the U.S. and the majority of the rest of the world. Law is a professional degree, and while technically most schools will allow people to apply to study law after only two years of study in an undergraduate programme in another field, the vast majority of those who are admitted have already earned at least an undergraduate (bachelor's) degree. AUSTRALIA In Australia the situation is similar to Canada. Most reputable universities offer law as a graduate course (LLB, 3 years), ungergraduate course (LLB, 4 years) or combined degree course (eg, BSc/LLB, BCom/LLB, BA/LLB, BE/LLB, 5 - 6 years). Some of these also offer a 2 year postgraduate JD program. Students in combined law would spend the first 3 years completing their first bachelor degree together with some preliminary law subjects, and then spend the last 2 years completing the law degree. Alternatively, one can finish any bachelor degree, and providing their academic results are high, apply for graduate entry into a LLB program. Notable law schools are at ANU , Monash , UNSW , Sydney and Melbourne . JAPAN The Japan ese legal education system is driven more by examination than by formal schooling. The profession of barristers, known as Bengoshi , is highly regulated, and the passage rate for the bar exam is around three percent. Most attorneys must take the exam three or four times before passing it, and a number of specialized "cram schools" exist for prospective lawyers. After passing the bar exam, prospective lawyers undergo a one-year training period at the Legal Research and Training Institute of the Supreme Court Of Japan . During this period, the most capable trainees are "selected out" to become career judges; others may become prosecutors or private practitioners. In 2004, the Japanese government passed a law allowing for the creation of three-year . The 2006 bar examination will be the first in Japanese history to require a law school degree as a prerequisite. In the past, while there has been no educational requirement, most who pass the examination have earned undergraduate degrees from "elite" Japanese universities such as Tokyo , Kyoto , Waseda , Keio and Chuo . A number of other legal professions exist in Japan, such as patent attorneys ('' Benrishi ''), tax attorneys ('' Zeirishi ''), Scrivener s, etc., entry to each of which is governed by a separate examination. SEE ALSO
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