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Most Language s are known to belong to language families. An accurately identified family is a Phylogenetic unit; that is, all its members derive from a common ancestor. This ancestor is very seldom known directly, since most languages have a very short recorded history. However, it is possible to recover many of its features by applying the Comparative Method —a reconstructive procedure worked out by 19th Century Linguist August Schleicher . This can demonstrate the validity of many of the proposed families listed below. Language families can be divided into smaller phylogenetic units, conventionally referred to as ''branches'' of the family, because the history of a language family is often represented as a Tree Diagram . However, the term ''family'' is not restricted to any one level of this "tree"; the Germanic Family , for example, is a branch of the Indo-European Family . Some taxonomists do restrict the term ''family'' to a certain level, but there is little consensus in how to do this. Those who do affix such labels also subdivide branches into ''groups'', and groups into ''complexes''. The terms ''superfamily'', ''phylum'', and ''stock'' are applied to proposed groupings of language families whose status as phylogenetic units is generally considered to be unsubstantiated by accepted historical linguistic methods. The common ancestor of the languages belonging to a language family is known as its '' Protolanguage ''. For example, the reconstructible Protolanguage of the well-known Indo-European family is called Proto-Indo-European . This is not known from written records, since it was spoken before the invention of writing, but sometimes a protolanguage can be identified with a historically known language. Thus, provincial dialects of Latin (" Vulgar Latin ") gave rise to the modern Romance Languages , so the Proto-Romance language is more or less identical with Latin (if not exactly with the literary Latin of the Classical writers), and dialects of Old Norse are the protolanguage to Norwegian , Swedish , Danish , Faroese and Icelandic . Languages that cannot be reliably classified into any family are known as Language Isolate s. A language isolated in its own branch within a family, such as Greek within Indo-European, is often also called an isolate, but such cases are usually clarified. For instance, Greek might be referred to as an Indo-European isolate. Some major language families
Largest families According to the numbers in Ethnologue {Link without Title} , the largest language families in terms of number of languages are: # Niger-Congo (1514 languages) # Austronesian (1268 languages) # Trans-New Guinea (564 languages) (validity disputed) # Indo-European (449 languages) # Sino-Tibetan (403 languages) # Afro-Asiatic (375 languages) # Nilo-Saharan (204 languages) # Pama-Nyungan (178 languages) # Oto-Manguean (174 languages) (number disputed; Lyle Campbell includes only 27) # Austro-Asiatic (169 languages) # Sepik-Ramu (100 languages) (validity disputed) # Tai-Kadai (76 languages) # Tupi (76 languages) # Dravidian (73 languages) # Mayan (69 languages) Language families (spoken) In the following, each "bulleted" item is a known or suspected language family. The geographic headings over them are meant solely as a tool for grouping families into collections more comprehensible than an unstructured list of the dozen or two of independent families. Geographic relationship is convenient for that purpose, but these headings are ''not'' a suggestion of any "super-families" phylogenetically relating the families named. Africa and Southwest Asia # Afro-Asiatic Languages (formerly Hamito-Semitic) # Niger-Congo Languages (sometimes Niger-Kordofanian) # Nilo-Saharan Languages # Khoe Languages (part of the Khoisan proposal) # Tuu Languages (part of Khoisan) Europe , and North , West , and South Asia # Indo-European Languages # Dravidian Languages # Northwest Caucasian Languages (often included in North Caucasian ) # Northeast Caucasian Languages (often included in North Caucasian) # Hurro-Urartian Languages ( Extinct , perhaps related to Northeast Caucasian) # Kartvelian (South Caucasian) # Altaic Languages # Uralic Languages # Yukaghir Languages (perhaps related to Uralic) # Chukotko-Kamchatkan Languages # Yeniseian Languages (perhaps related to Burushaski) # Andamanese Languages (perhaps two families) East Asia , Southeast Asia and The Pacific # Austroasiatic Languages # Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) Languages # Hmong-Mien Languages # Japonic Languages (or Fuyu Languages ) # Sino-Tibetan Languages # Tai-Kadai Languages Papuan Languages # Baining Languages # Border Languages # Central Solomons Languages # East Bird's Head-Sentani Languages # Eastern Trans-Fly Languages ''(one in Australia)'' # East Geelvink Bay Languages # Lakes Plain Languages ''(upper Mamberamo River)'' # Left May-Kwomtari Languages # Mairasi Languages # Nimboran Languages # North Bougainville Languages # Piawi Languages # Ramu-Lower Sepik Languages # Senagi Languages # Sepik Languages # Skou Languages # South Bougainville Languages # South-Central Papuan Languages # Tor-Kwerba Languages # Torricelli Languages # West Papuan Languages # Yuat Languages Australian Aboriginal Languages # Bunaban Languages # Daly Languages # Limilngan Languages # Djeragan Languages # Nyulnyulan Languages # Wororan Languages # Mindi Languages # Arnhem Land Languages (3 families and 2 isolates) # Gunwinyguan Languages # Pama-Nyungan Languages North America : ''See main article, Native American Languages '' # Algic Languages (incl. Algonquian Languages ) (29) # Alsean Languages (2) # Caddoan Languages (5) # Chimakuan Languages (2) # Chinookan Languages (3) # Chumashan Languages (6) # Comecrudan Languages (3) # Coosan Languages (2) # Eskimo-Aleut Languages (7) # Guacurian Languages (a.k.a. Waikurian) (8) # Iroquoian Languages (11) # Kalapuyan Languages (3) # Kiowa-Tanoan Languages (7) # Maiduan Languages (4) # Mayan Languages ( North America & Central America ) (31) # Muskogean Languages (6) # Na-Dené Languages (40) # Oto-Manguean Languages ( North America & Central America ) (27) # Palaihnihan Languages (2) # Plateau Penutian Languages (a.k.a. Shahapwailutan) (4) # Pomoan Languages (7) # Salishan Languages (23) # Shastan Languages (4) # Siouan Languages (16) # Tequistlatecan Languages (3) # Totonacan Languages (2) # Tsimshian Languages (2) # Utian Languages (12) # Uto-Aztecan Languages (31) # Wakashan Languages (6) # Wintuan Languages (4) # Yokutsan Languages (3) # Yukian Languages (2) # Yuman-Cochimí Languages (11) Central America and South America : ''See main article, Native American Languages '' # Alacalufan Languages ( South America ) (2) # Algic Languages ( North American & Central America ) (29) # Arauan Languages ( South America ) (8) # Araucanian Languages ( South America ) (2) # Arawakan Languages ( South America , Caribbean ) (73) # Arutani-Sape Languages ( South America ) (2) # Aymaran Languages ( South America ) (3) # Barbacoan Languages ( South America ) (7) # Cahuapanan Languages ( South America ) (2) # Carib Languages ( South America ) (29) # Chapacura-Wanham Languages ( South America ) (5) # Chibchan Languages ( Central America & South America ) (22) # Choco Languages ( South America ) (10) # Chon Languages ( South America ) (2) # Comecrudan Languages ( North America & Central America ) (3) # Guacurian Languages (a.k.a. Waikurian) (8) # Harakmbet Languages ( South America ) (2) # Jicaquean Languages ( Central America ) # Jivaroan Languages ( South America ) (4) # Katukinan Languages ( South America ) (3) # Lencan Languages ( Central America ) # Lule-Vilela Languages ( South America ) (1) # Macro-Ge Languages ( South America ) (32) # Maku Languages ( South America ) (6) # Mascoian Languages ( South America ) (5) # Mataco-Guaicuru Languages ( South America ) (11) # Mayan Languages ( Central America ) (31) # Misumalpan Languages ( Central America ) # Mixe-Zoquean Languages ( Central America ) (19) # Mosetenan Languages ( South America ) (1) # Mura Languages ( South America ) (1) # Na-Dené Languages ( North America & Central America ) (40) # Nambiquaran Languages ( South America ) (5) # Oto-Manguean Languages ( North America & Central America ) (27) # Paezan Languages ( South America ) (1) # Panoan Languages ( South America ) (30) # Peba-Yaguan Languages ( South America ) (2) # Quechuan Languages ( South America ) (46) # Salivan Languages ( South America ) (2) # Tacanan Languages ( South America ) (6) # Tequistlatecan Languages ( Central America ) (3) # Totonacan Languages ( Central America ) (2) # Tucanoan Languages ( South America ) (25) # Tupi Languages ( South America ) (70) # Uru-Chipaya Languages ( South America ) (2) # Uto-Aztecan Languages ( North America & Central America ) (31) # Witotoan Languages ( South America ) (6) # Xincan Languages ( Central America ) # Yanomam Languages ( South America ) (4) # Yuman-Cochimi Languages ( North America & Central America ) (11) # Zamucoan Languages ( South America ) (2) # Zaparoan Languages ( South America ) (7) Language Isolates (oral languages) Central & South America #Aikaná ''(Brazil: Rondônia) # Andoque ''(Colombia, Peru)'' #Betoi ''(Columbia)'' # Camsá ''(Columbia)'' #Canichana ''(Bolivia)'' # Cayubaba Language ''(Bolivia)'' #Cofán ''(Colombia, Ecuador)'' #Cuitlatec ''(Mexico: Guerrero)'' {Link without Title} # Huaorani (aka Sabela, Waorani, Waodani) ''(Ecuador, Peru)'' #Huave ''(Mexico: Oaxaca)'' #Irantxe ''(Brazil: Mato Grosso)'' # Itonama ''(Bolivia)'' #Jotí ''(Venezuela)'' #Koayá ''(Brazil: Rondônia) #Mapudungu ''(Chile, Argentina)'' #Movima ''(Bolivia)'' # Munichi ''(Peru)'' #Nambiquaran ''(Brazil: Mato Grosso)'' #Omurano ''(Peru)'' #Otí ''(Brazil: São Paulo)'' {Link without Title} # Pankararú ''(Brazil: Pernambuco)'' # Puelche ''(Chile)'' # Puinave ''(Columbia)'' #Puquina ''(Bolivia)'' {Link without Title} #Seri ''(Mexico: Sonora)'' # Tarascan (a.k.a. Purépecha) ''(Mexico: Michoacán)'' #Taushiro ''(Peru)'' #Tequiraca ''(Peru)'' # Ticuna ''(Colombia, Peru, Brazil)'' # Warao ''(Guyana, Surinam, Venezuela)'' # Yámana (a.k.a Yagan) ''(Chile)'' # Yuracare ''(Bolivia)'' #Yuri ''(Colombia, Brazil)'' #Yurumanguí ''(Columbia)'' North America # Chimariko ''(US: California)'' # Chitimacha ''(US: Lousiania)'' # Coahuilteco ''(US: Texas; northeast Mexico)'' # Esselen ''(US: California)'' # Haida ''(Canada: British Columbia; US: Alaska)'' # Karankawa ''(US: Texas)'' # Karok (a.k.a. Karuk) ''(US: California)'' # Keres ''(US: New Mexico)'' # Kootenai ''(Canada: British Columbia; US: Idaho, Montana)'' # Natchez ''(US: Mississippi, Louisiana)'' (sometimes linked to Muskogean) # Salinan ''(US: California)'' # Siuslaw ''(US: Oregon)'' # Takelma ''(US: Oregon)'' # Timucua ''(US: Florida, Georgia)'' # Tonkawa ''(US: Texas)'' # Tunica ''(US: Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas)'' # Washo ''(US: California, Nevada)'' # Yana ''(US: California)'' # Yuchi ''(US: Georgia, Oklahoma)'' # Zuni (a.k.a. Shiwi) ''(US: New Mexico)'' Australia # Enindhilyagwa (AKA Andilyaugwa, Anindilyakwa) # Laragiya # Minkin perhaps a member of Yiwaidjan or Tankic # Ngurmbur (perhaps a member of Macro-Pama-Nyungan) # Tiwi (Melville and Bathurst Islands) New Guinea # Abinomn Language (Baso, Foia) ''(north Irian)'' # Anêm ''(New Britain)'' # Ata (Pele-Ata, Wasi) ''(New Britain)'' # Busa Language ''(Sandaun)'' # Isirawa Language ''(north Irian)'' # Kol Language ''(New Britain)'' # Kuot Language (Panaras) ''(New Ireland)'' # Massep Language # Pyu Language # Sulka Language ''(New Britain)'' # Taiap Language (Gapun) ''(Sepik)'' # Yalë Language (Nagatman) ''(Sandaun)'' # Yawa ''(Geelvink Bay)'' # Yélî Dnye '' (Yele) ''(Rennell Island)'' # Yuri Language (Karkar) ''(Sandaun)'' Asia # Ainu Language or languages ''(Russia, Japan)'' (like Arabic or Japanese , the diversity within Ainu is large enough that some consider it to be perhaps up to a dozen languages while others consider it a single language with high dialectal diversity) # Burushaski ''(Pakistan, India)'' (sometimes linked to Yeniseian ) # Japanese ''(Islands of Japan, USA)'' (sometimes linked to Austronesian ) # Kalto or Nahali ''(India)'' (sometimes linked to Munda) # Korean ''(North & South Korea, China, USA)'' (sometimes linked to Altaic ) # Nivkh or Gilyak ''(Russia)'' (sometimes linked to Chukchi-Kamchatkan ) # Sumerian ''(Iraq)'' {Link without Title} # Elamite ''(Iran)'' {Link without Title} (sometimes linked to Dravidian ) # Hattic ''(Turkey)'' {Link without Title} (sometimes linked to Northwest Caucasian ) Africa # Hadza ''(Tanzania)'' # Sandawe ''(Tanzania)'' # Juu ''(Angola, Botswana, Namibia)'' # ‡Qhôã ''(Botswana)'' (may be related to Juu) (all sometimes included under Khoisan ) Europe # Basque ''(Spain, France)'' (related to extinct Aquitanian) # Etruscan ''(Italy)'' part of the poorly attested Tyrrhenian family Unclassified languages Many languages are too poorly attested to classify. Many of them are extinct and never will be known well enough to classify. Some may have been isolates; others were likely members of established families. Europe # Iberian ''(Spain)'' {Link without Title} # Tartessian ''(Spain, Portugal)'' {Link without Title} Africa # Shabo # Meroitic {Link without Title} Asia # Quti {Link without Title} # Kaskian {Link without Title} # Cimmerian {Link without Title} South America #Baenan ''(Brazil)'' {Link without Title} #Culle ''(Peru)'' {Link without Title} #Cunza ''(Chile, Bolivia, Argentina)'' {Link without Title} #Gamela ''(Brazil: Maranhão)'' {Link without Title} #Gorgotoqui ''(Bolivia)'' {Link without Title} #Huamoé ''(Brazil: Pernambuco)'' {Link without Title} #Kukurá ''(Brazil: Mato Grosso)'' {Link without Title} #Natú ''(Brazil: Pernambuco)'' {Link without Title} #Tarairiú ''(Brazil: Rio Grande do Norte)'' # Tuxá ''(Brazil: Bahia, Pernambuco)'' {Link without Title} #Xokó ''(Brazil: Alagoas, Pernambuco)'' {Link without Title} #Xukurú ''(Brazil: Pernambuco, Paraíba)'' {Link without Title} North America # Adai ''(US: Louisiana, Texas)'' {Link without Title} #Alagüilac ''(Guatemala)'' #Aranama-Tamique ''(US: Texas)'' {Link without Title} # Atakapa ''(US: Louisiana, Texas)'' {Link without Title} # Beothuk ''(Canada: Newfoundland)'' {Link without Title} # Calusa ''(US: Florida)'' {Link without Title} # Cayuse ''(US: Oregon, Washington)'' {Link without Title} # Cotoname ''(northeast Mexico; US: Texas)'' {Link without Title} #Maratino ''(northeastern Mexico)'' {Link without Title} #Naolan ''(Mexico: Tamaulipas)'' {Link without Title} #Quinigua ''(northeast Mexico)'' {Link without Title} #Solano ''(northeast Mexico; US: Texas)'' {Link without Title} Sign languages See also List Of Sign Languages . Although deaf Sign Language s have emerged naturally in deaf communities alongside or among spoken languages, they are unrelated to spoken languages and have different grammatical structures at their core. A group of sign "languages" known as Manually Coded Language s are more properly understood as signed ''modes'' of spoken languages, and therefore belong to the language family of the spoken language; one example of such a signed language is Warlpiri Sign Language . There has been very little historical linguistic research on sign languages, and few attempts to determine genetic relationships between sign languages, other than simple comparison of , Quebec Sign Language , American Sign Language , Irish Sign Language , Dutch Sign Language , Flemish Sign Language , Belgian-French Sign Language , Mexican Sign Language and others; Bolivian Sign Language is sometimes considered a dialect of American Sign Language, and thus would also belong with this group. Other languages, such as Nicaraguan Sign Language , Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language , and Providence Island Sign Language are known to be isolates. Creole Language s, Pidgin s, Mixed Language s, and Trade Languages
Proposed language stocks See also External links
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