| History Of Technology |
Article Index for History Of |
Articles about History Of Technology |
Website Links For History |
Information AboutHistory Of Technology |
|
to Madagascar and also across the Pacific Ocean , which required knowledge of the ocean currents, the winds, Sail ing, the movement of the stars, Celestial Navigation , and star maps. The star maps were not made of paper, but were lashed together with strings, Stick s and Shell s. Their Outrigger ships were ocean-worthy, thousands of years ago, well before the maritime technology of the West was capable of the Age Of Exploration . Before them, likely by Hunting And Gathering , the Indigenous Australians and the Native Americans followed the contours of the continents to populate their parts of the world - a journey of tens of thousands of kilometers, and which may have taken thousands of years. Ancient Egypt The Egyptians invented and used many simple machines, such as the Ramp and the Lever , to aid their construction processes. Egyptian Paper made from Papyrus and Pottery was mass produced and exported to the entire Mediterranean basin. The Wheel , however, did not arrive until foreign invaders introduced the Chariot . Tribal Europe By 1000 BC - 500 BC the Germanic Tribes had a Bronze Age civilization, while the Celt s were in the Iron Age by the time of the Hallstatt Culture . Their cultures next collided with the military and agricultural practices of the Romans , two millennia ago. But the time and resources which are needed to conduct science had to build up gradually. Ancient Greece Hero Of Alexandria invented a Steam Engine and documented the use of many mechanic, pneumatic and other devices. Archimedes invented several machines. Ancient Rome Main article: Ancient Roman Technology , Chicago ]] The civilization of Rome included technology for:
Because Rome was located on a volcanic peninsula, with sand which contained suitable crystalline grains, the Concrete which the Romans formulated and invented was especially durable. Some of their buildings have lasted 2000 years, to the present day. The Romans understood hydraulics and constructed fountains and waterworks which were the hallmark of their civilization. The failure of the Roman baths in the city marked the end of Roman civilization. But some Roman baths, in England for example, have lasted to this day. Ancient India The Indus Valley Civilization situated suitably, with a lot of resources, was a lesson in city planning and sanitation. One of the first examples of closed 'gutters', public baths, granaries etc. are seen here. A panel found at Mohenjodaro , depicting a sailing craft. Vessels were of many types. Their construction is vividly described in the Yukti Kalpa Taru, an ancient Indian text on Ship-building. Indian construction and architecture called ' Vaastu Shastra ' offered details and plans based on scientific principles like Strength of Materials, ideal height of construction, presence of adequate sources of water, light hence preserving hygiene. It is one of the first building science to be so all-inclusive. The Yukti Kalpa Taru, compiled by Bhoja Narapati is concerned with ship-building. (The Yukti Kalpa Taru (YKT) had been translated and published by Prof. Aufrecht in his 'Catalogue of Sanskrit Manuscripts '). Ancient Indian culture has always been diverse in its choice of spices, condiments and ornamental items, hence India was the origin of Palm and Coconut oil, Indigo and other vegetable dyes and pigments like Cinnabar . Many of the dyes were used in art and sculpture. The use of Perfumes demonstrates some knowledge of the application of technologies used in Chemistry , particularly in Distillation and purification processes. Ancient China According to the Scottish researcher Joseph Needham , the Chinese made a great many first-known discoveries and developments. Major technological contributions from China include early Seismological detectors, Matches , Paper , Sliding Calipers , the double-action Piston Pump , Cast Iron , the iron Plough , the multi-tube Seed Drill , the Wheelbarrow , the Suspension Bridge , the Parachute , Natural Gas as fuel, the Magnetic Compass , the Relief Map , the Propeller , the Crossbow , and Gun Powder . Medieval China ]] The solid-fuel Rocket was invented in China about 1150 , about 200 years after the invention of Black Powder (which was its main fuel) and 500 years after the invention of the Match . At the same time that the Age Of Exploration was occurring in the West, the Chinese emperors of the Ming Dynasty also sent ships, Some Reaching Africa . But the enterprises were not further funded, halting further exploration and development. When Magellan 's ships reached Brunei in 1521 , they found a wealthy city that had been fortified by Chinese engineers, protected by a Breakwater . Antonio Pigafetta noted that much of the technology of Brunei was equal to Western technology of the time. Also, there were more cannons in Brunei than on Magellan's ships, and the Chinese merchants to the Brunei court had sold them Spectacles and Porcelain , which were rarities in Europe. The scientific base for these technological developments appears to be quite thin, however. For example, the concept of Force was not clearly formulated in Chinese texts of the period. Other Chinese discoveries and inventions from the Medieval period, according to Joseph Needham's research, include: the Paddle Wheel boat, Block Printing and Movable Type , phosphorescent paint, Chain Drive , and the Spinning Wheel . Inca The engineering skills of the Inca were great, even by today's standards. An example is the use of pieces weighing in upwards of one ton in their stonework (e.g., Machu Picchu in Peru ), placed together so that not even a blade can fit in-between the cracks. The villages used irrigation canals and Drainage systems, making agriculture very efficient. Maya The Maya Civilization did not Smelt metals or use the wheel; they possessed a system of writing and amazing fluency with flint-knapping including portraiture in flint. European The Fall Of The Roman Empire slowed, but did not stop innovation; the Romans preferred to use oils for bathing, but soap was brought by the tribes seeking to enter the protections of the Empire. By the fall of Rome, heavy chain armor was in use by the heavy cavalry of Rome, and for nearly a thousand years afterward, until it was substituted by Plate Armor . Medieval See: Medieval Technology =Timekeeping At first, timekeeping was done by hand, by priests, and then for commerce, with watchmen to note time, as part of their duties. The tabulation of the equinoxes, the Sandglass , and the Water Clock became more and more accurate, and finally reliable. For ships at sea, boys were used to turn the Sandglass es, and to call the hours. The use of the Pendulum , Ratchet s and Gear s allowed the towns of Europe to create mechanisms to display the time on their respective town clocks; by the time of the Scientific Revolution , the clocks became miniaturized enough for families to share a personal clock, or perhaps a pocket watch. At first, only kings could afford them. Age of Exploration The sailing ship (Nau or Carrack ) enabled the Age Of Exploration with the European Colonization Of The Americas , epitomized by Francis Bacon 's ''New Atlantis''. Agricultural Revolution :''See British Agricultural Revolution . Industrial Revolution Main article: Industrial Revolution The British Industrial Revolution is characterised by developments in the areas of Textile Manufacturing , Metallurgy and Transport driven by the development of the Steam Engine . 19th century Steam-powered transportation by Railway , pioneered notably by Richard Trevithick . The Portsmouth Block Mills was where manufacture of ships' pulley blocks by all-metal machines first took place and instigated the age of Mass Production . Machine Tools used by enginers to manufacture other machines began in the first decade of the century, notably by Richard Roberts and Joseph Whitworth . Steamship s were eventually completely iron-clad, and played a role in the opening of Japan and China to trade with the West. Mechanical computing was envisioned by Charles Babbage but did not come to fruition. 20th century Radio , and possibilities in Radar . It is possible that electronic Computing would have developed as rapidly without the wars of the twentieth century. Nuclear Power , developed after the Manhattan Project , is another important but Controversial technology. Transport by (Goddard), Russia (Tsiolkovsky) and Germany (Oberth). Recombinant DNA . MEASURING TECHNOLOGICAL PROGRESS Many Sociologists and Anthropologists have created Social Theories dealing with Social and Cultural Evolution . Some, like Lewis H. Morgan , Leslie White , and Gerhard Lenski , declare Technological Progress to be the primary factor driving the development of human civilisation. Morgan's concept of three major stages of social evoluton ( Savagery , Barbarism , and Civilization ) can be divided by technological milestones, like Fire , the Bow , and Pottery in the savage era, Domestication Of Animals , Agriculture , and Metalworking in the barbarian era and the Alphabet and Writing in the civilisation era. Instead of specific inventions, White decided that the measure by which to judge the evolution of culture was .
Lenski takes a more modern approach and focuses on Information . The more information and knowledge (especially allowing the shaping of natural environment) a given society has, the more advanced it is. He identifies four stages of human development, based on advances in the History Of Communication . In the first stage, information is passed by Gene s. In the second, when humans gain Sentience , they can Learn and pass information through by experience. In the third, the humans start using Signs and develop Logic . In the fourth, they can create Symbol s, develop Language and Writing . Advancements in the technology of communication translates into advancements in the Economic System and Political System , Distribution Of Goods , Social Inequality and other spheres of social life. He also differentiates societies based on their level of technology, communication and economy: 1) hunters and gatherers, 2) simple agricultural, 3) advanced agricultural, 4) industrial 5) special (like fishing societies). Finally, from the late 1970s sociologists and anthropologists like Alvin Toffler (author of Future Shock ), Daniel Bell and John Naisbitt have approached the theories of Post-industrial Societies , arguing that the current era of Industrial Society is coming to an end, and Service s and information are becoming more important than Industry and Good s. Some of the more extreme visions of the post-industrial society, especially in Fiction , are strikingly similar to the visions of near and post- Singularity societies. BY TYPE OF TECHNOLOGY History of biotechnology ''Main article: History Of Biotechnology '' To be incorporated into main article:
History of civil engineering ''Main article: History Of Civil Engineering '' To be incorporated:
History of communication ''Main article: History Of Communication '' To be incorporated:
History of computing ''Main article: History Of Computing '' History of consumer technology ''Main article: History Of Consumer Technology '' To be incorporated:
History of electrical engineering ''Main article: Electrical Engineering#History '' To be incorporated: History of energy technology ''Main article: History Of Energy Technology '' To be incorporated:
History of materials science ''Main article: History Of Materials Science '' To be incorporated:
History of medicine ''Main article: History Of Medicine '' History of military technology ''Main article: History Of Warfare '' To be incorporated into main article:
History of nuclear technology ''Main article: Nuclear Technology#History '' History of scientific technology ''Main article: History Of Scientific Technology ''
History of timekeeping ''Main article: Timeline Of Time Measurement Technology '' To be incorporated: History of transport technology ''Main article: Historic Transport '' To be incorpoated into main article:
SEE ALSO Related history Related disciplines
Related subjects Future of science and technology (speculative) People Historiography of science and technology Historians of science and technology
Journals and periodicals in the history of science and technology
Research institutes REFERENCES
EXTERNAL LINKS
|