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Schematic paradigm Inclusive-exclusive paradigms may be summarized as a two‐by‐two grid: Where found The inclusive-exclusive distinction is nearly universal among the Austronesian Languages and the languages of northern Australia , but rare in the Papuan Languages in between. It is widespread among the Dravidian Languages , the Munda Languages , and the languages of eastern Siberia , such as Evenki , though it has been lost from some. In America it is found in about half the languages, with no clear geographic or genealogical pattern. It is also found in a few languages of the Caucasus and Sub-Saharan Africa , such as Laal . Austronesian languages In Malay , the pronoun ''kita'' is inclusive, and ''kami'' is exclusive. That is, you may say "We (''kami'') will go shopping, and then we (''kita'') will eat," making it clear that your guest is not to accompany you to the market, but is invited to dinner. What you cannot do is be ambiguous as to whether your guest is included, as you can in English. Tagalog has a very similar system with ''kamí'' and ''táyo'' being respectively the exclusive and inclusive forms. The word ''kitá'' (or ''katá'') was originally a Dual inclusive pronoun "you and I". However, it has now become a Portmanteau pronoun for first plus second person, as in ''mahál kitá'' "I love you", originally "you and I are dear." In other Philippine Languages , particularly those spoken in northern Luzon , the use of the dual pronoun is widely used. Kapampangan , for example, has ''ikata'' (dual inclusive), ''ikatamu'' (plural inclusive), and ''ikami'' (exclusive). Ilokano has ''data''/''sita'', ''datayo''/''sitayo'', and ''dakami''/''sikami''. Tausug of Sulu is the only Visayan Language which has the dual form. Its pronouns are ''kita'' (dual inclusive), ''kitaniyu'' (plural inclusive), and ''kami'' (exclusive). Chinese languages In standard Mandarin , the pronoun ''wǒmen'' 我們 "we", which is the plural of the pronoun ''wǒ'' 我 "I", is indefinite like its English counterpart. However, in northern Mandarin dialects there is an additional pronoun, ''zámen'' 咱們, which is inclusive. In these dialects, ''wǒmen'' 我們 is exclusive. Taiwanese is similar. Exclusive ''goán'' is the plural of ''goá'' "I", while inclusive ''lán'' is a separate root also with the plural suffix. ''Lán'' may be used to express politeness or solidarity, as in asking a stranger "where do we live?" to mean "where do you live?". Austroasiatic languages Vietnamese makes a distinction between inclusive and exclusive we. Among the many Vietnamese Pronouns there are ''chúng ta'' (inclusive) and ''chúng tôi'' (exclusive). "Chúng" is a plural marker derived from Chinese Pidgins The Chinese pattern, with the plural form of "I" as the exclusive pronoun, is a common one. It is also common for the inclusive pronoun to be composed of the pronouns for "I" and "you". Both are the case in the English-Melanesian-based Creole Language s Tok Pisin and Bislama , where the inclusive pronoun is a variant of ''yumi'' (two people, that is, ''you'' + ''me'') or ''yumipla'' (for more than two people; ''-pla'' or ''-pela'' is a plural suffix), and the exclusive pronoun is the plural of "me": ''mipla''. American languages In Quechua , both forms, inclusive ''ñuqanchik'' and exclusive ''ñuqayku'', are clearly based on the first-person singular pronoun ''ñuqa'', but it is not immediately clear how they relate historically to the second-person pronoun ''qan'' or the plural suffix ''-kuna''. Aymara has four pronominal roots: Inclusive ''jiwasa,'' exclusive ''naya,'' second person ''juma,'' and third person ''jupa.'' All are indefinite as to number apart from ''jiwasa,'' which must refer to at least two people. Plurality may be emphasized with the suffix ''-naka;'' inclusive ''jiwasanaka'' implies at least three people. Verbal conjugations reflect the same four persons. Another Amerindian Language that makes the distinction is Guaraní , with singular ''che'', exclusive ''ore'', and an inclusive ''ñande'' that is likely formed from ''nde'' 'thou'. Additionally, all Algonquian languages make a distinction between first person plural inclusive and exclusive. For example, in Shawnee , the first person plural exclusive independent pronoun is ''niilawe'', the corresponding inclusive pronoun is ''kiilawe'', while the first person singular pronoun is ''niila'' and the second person singular pronoun is ''kiila''. The inclusive/exclusive distinction is also made throughout the pronominal inflection of verbs in all Algonquian languages. Dravidian languages In Telugu , the forms are inclusive మనము ''manamu'' and exclusive మేము ''memu''. In Malayalam , നമ്മള് (nammaL)is the inclusive form of we while ഞങ്ങള് () is exclusive. Equivalents are also found in Tamil and Kannada . Distinction in verbs Where verbs are inflected for Person , as in Australia and much of America, the inclusive-exclusive distinction is made there as well. For example, in Passamaquoddy "I/we have it" is expressed :Singular ''n-tíhin'' (first person prefix ''n-)'' :Exclusive ''n-tíhin-'''èn''''' (first person ''n-'' + plural suffix ''-èn)'' :Inclusive ''k-tíhin-'''èn''''' (inclusive prefix ''k-'' + plural ''-èn)'' Singular we There is an interesting twist with inclusive pronouns in Samoan . In this language, as in the related languages Malay and Tagalog, there are two separate roots for "we", inclusive ''’ita'' and exclusive ''’ima''. Unlike in those languages, the Samoan pronouns must be used with the dual suffix ''-’ua'' or the plural suffix ''-tou'' to mean "we". However, the inclusive pronoun ''’ita'' may also occur on its own as a singular pronoun. In this case it means "I", but with a connotation of appealing or asking for indulgence, rather like the concept of '' Amae '' in Japanese . That is, by using ''’ita'' instead of the normal word for "I", ''a’u'', you are involving the other person in statements about yourself. Reference
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