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Anarchism is ", as most anarchists use it, does not imply Chaos , Nihilism , or Anomie , but rather a harmonious Anti-authoritarian society that is based on individual Self-determination and personal involvement. In place of what are regarded as authoritarian political structures and coercive economic institutions, anarchists advocate social relations based upon Voluntary Association of free individuals in autonomous communities, Mutual Aid , and Self-governance , and the concept of Balanced Reciprocity . While anarchism is most easily defined by what it is against, anarchists also offer positive visions of what they believe to be a truly free society. However, ideas about how an anarchist society might work vary considerably, especially with respect to economics, ranging from "total communism to zealous individualism. In between are found sundry recipes, from anarcho-syndicalism to anarcho-capitalism."Perlin, Terry M. ''Contemporary Anarchism'', Transaction Books, New Brunswick, NJ 1979. There is also disagreement about how a free society might be brought about. Beyond the Anti-statist commonality that justifies a wide variety of philosophies as all being forms of anarchism, specific forms of anarchism may overlap in additional respects with other forms and may conflict in some ways as well. Moreover, degrees of commonality and conflict also exist ''within'' each form of anarchism as a result of the unique opinions of those who theorize within the broad genres. Origins and predecessors In '''', Peter Kropotkin argued that mutual aid was a natural feature of animal and human relations. 3 Most Anthropologists agree that the State is not a natural phenomenon and that many hunter-gatherer bands were egalitarian and lacked Division Of Labour , accumulated wealth, or decreed Law , and had equal access to resources.4 Many anarchists cite earlier religious, social, and political movements as inspirational and sometimes as embodying "anarchistic principles" even though they have not proclaimed themselves as anarchist. An example of this is Taoism from Ancient China 5, although Taoism became the State Religion in China in 165 C.E.6. According to Kropotkin the Stoic Zeno Of Citium "repudiated the Omnipotence of the state, its intervention and regimentation, and proclaimed the Sovereignty of the moral law of the individual". Anarchism , written by Peter Kropotkin, from Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1910] Likewise Bertrand Russell , in his '' History Of Western Philosophy '', writes that the Anabaptist s "repudiated all law, since they held that the good man will be guided at every moment by The Holy Spirit ... this premise they arrive at Communism ...." Russell , Bertrand. ''"Ancient philosophy"'' in ''A History of Western Philosophy, and its connection with political and social circumstances from the earliest times to the present day'', 1945. The Diggers or "True Levellers" were an early communistic movement during the time of the English Civil War , and have been cited as forerunners of modern anarchism.[http://www.zpub.com/notes/aan-hist.html An Anarchist Timeline , from Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1994. In the , a Libertarian and leader in the American Indian Movement , has repeatedly stated that he is "an anarchist, and so are all {Link without Title} ancestors." The first essay to explicitly advocate the absence of government was written anonymously by Girondins at more radical elements in the French Revolution . The first self-labelled anarchist "'', 1840 At first, Proudhon starkly contrasted what he called 'possession' - limited rights to use resources, capital and goods in accordance with principles of equality and justice - with existing forms of 'property.' His opposition to capitalism, the state and organised religion inspired subsequent anarchists and made him one of the leading socialist thinkers of his time. For Proudhon: "Capital . . . in the political field is analogous to government . . . The economic idea of capitalism, the politics of government or of authority, and the theological idea of the Church are three identical ideas, linked in various ways. To attack one of them is equivalent to attacking all of them . . . What capital does to labour, and the State to liberty, the Church does to the spirit. This trinity of absolutism is as baneful in practice as it is in philosophy. The most effective means for oppressing the people would be simultaneously to enslave its body, its will and its reason." A few years before his death in 1865, he came to support "property" as a necessary counterbalance to State power ("Property is liberty.") - without abandoning his earlier critique (as the size of ownership was limited to the amount an individual, family or group could use by themselves). Proudhon argued in ''The Principle of Federation'' (1863) that anarchy was to remain a perpetual desideratum. He advocated that social and political relations should be based on genuinely voluntary contracts between free and equal producers. He argued for an "agro-industrial federation," with the right of secession.In The Principle of Federation he stated that the "confederation is not exactly a state; it is a group of sovereign and independent states, associated by a pact of mutual guarantees." In '''On the Political Capacity of the Working Classes''' (1865), he emphasized that "the sovereign parts" of the federated states must "be free to quit the group and withdraw from the compact, ''at will''." Both passages are reproduced in '''Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas, Volume 1''', at pp. 73-74.[http://www.blackrosebooks.net/anarism1.htm] He accepted the need for small-scale property to keep "the State on an even keel" (while property was "an absolutism within an absolutism") and the need to "regulate the market" to "protect the citizens of the federated states from capitalist and financial feudalism, both within them and from the outside." '''Selected Writings''' and The Principle of Federation In his political testament, ''On the Political Capacity of the Working Classes'' (1865), he argued that a federative political organization could only function based on Mutualist economics, which would provide for "the effective sovereignty of the laboring masses" through their mutualist associations[http://blackrosebooks.net/anarism1.htm] Proudhon's in France as well as the Paris Commune of 1871. Anarcho-communists, such as Kropotkin, later disagreed with Proudhon for his support of "private property" in the products of labour (i.e. wages, or ''"remuneration for work done"'') rather than free distribution of the products of labour.Kropotkin, Peter. Chapter 13 ''The Collectivist Wages System'' from ''The Conquest of Bread'' , G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York and London, 1906. As a mutualist, Proudhon opposed private property in workplaces, land and housing in favour of a system of "possession" by their users (''"all accumulated capital being social property, no one can be its exclusive proprietor."'' Chapter 3, section 6 of "What is Property?", p. 130 ). While he opposed communism and favoured remuneration for labour, he also opposed capitalist Wage Labour (i.e. profiting from someone else's labour). Proudhon , Pierre-Joseph. ''The General Idea of the Revolution'', p. 281 He urged workers ''"to form themselves into democratic societies, with equal conditions for all members, on pain of a relapse into feudalism."'' Under capitalism, he argued employees are ''"subordinated, exploited"'' and their ''"permanent condition is one of obedience,"'' a ''"slave."'' Capitalist companies ''"plunder the bodies and souls of wage workers"'' and they are ''"an outrage upon human dignity and personality."'' He advocated workers' co-operatives to replace capitalism. The worker becomes an ''"associate"'' and ''"forms a part of the producing organisation . . . {Link without Title} forms a part of the sovereign power, of which he was before but the subject."'' Without this, people ''"would remain related as subordinates and superiors, and there would ensue two industrial castes of masters and wage-workers, which is repugnant to a free and democratic society."'' Proudhon , Pierre-Joseph. ''The General Idea of the Revolution'', p. 277 and pp. 216-8 Support for workers' management of production is shared by all schools of social anarchism. Proudhon's philosophy of property is complex and often contradictory: it was developed in a number of works over his lifetime, and there are differing interpretations of some of his ideas. ''For more detailed discussion see Pierre-Joseph Proudhon .'' Max Stirner's egoism In his '' The Ego And Its Own '', Stirner argued that most commonly accepted social institutions - including the notion of State, property as a right, natural rights in general, and the very notion of society - were mere illusions or ''ghosts'' in the mind, saying of society that "the individuals are its reality." He advocated egoism and a form of amoralism, in which individuals would unite in 'associations of egoists' only when it was in their self interest to do so. For him, property simply comes about through might: "Whoever knows how to take, to defend, the thing, to him belongs property." And, "What I have in my power, that is my own. So long as I assert myself as holder, I am the proprietor of the thing." Stirner never called himself an anarchist - he accepted only the label 'egoist'. Nevertheless, he is considered by most to be an anarchist, and his ideas were influential on many anarchists, although interpretations of his thought are diverse. American individualist anarchism The context of American anarchism can be traced back to the American Revolution and the Whiskey Rebellion , Shays' Rebellion , and similar local revolts following American independence. Social Contract theory had been used to justify the secession of the American colonies from Britain, and by extension settlers on the Western frontier claimed the right of counties and towns to Secede from American states, and for pioneers to live in what was effectively the State Of Nature . Although the Whiskey Rebellion was put down by George Washington , West Virginia ultimately did secede from Virginia during the American Civil War , following Virginia's secession into the Confederate States Of America . The movement's economic projects also had colonial roots. The mutual bank was a reinvention of the private land banks and public loan offices of the colonies, a tradition extending back to 1681 and the establishment of "The Fund at Boston." ]] In 1825 Josiah Warren had participated in a Communitarian experiment headed by Robert Owen called New Harmony , which failed in a few years amidst much internal conflict. Warren blamed the community's failure on a lack of Individual Sovereignty and a lack of private property. Warren proceeded to organise experimental anarchist communities which respected what he called "the sovereignty of the individual" at Utopia and Modern Times . In 1833 Warren wrote and published ''The Peaceful Revolutionist'', which some have noted to be the first anarchist periodical ever published. Benjamin Tucker says that Warren "was the first man to expound and formulate the doctrine now known as Anarchism." (''Liberty'' XIV (December, 1900):1) for trading this property. However, like most anarchists, he rejected intellectual property rights as well as opposing private property in land and other natural resources in favour of "occupancy and use" He argued that in a truly free market system without the state, the abundance of competition would eliminate profits, interest and rent and ensure that all workers received the full value of their labor. Many individualists (such as Tucker and Yarros) supported market-provided private defense of labour produced property and land occupied by those who used it. Other nineteenth century individualists included Lysander Spooner , Stephen Pearl Andrews , and Victor Yarros . The First International 1814 - 1876 ]] In Europe, harsh reaction followed the revolutions of 1848. Twenty years later in 1864 the International Workingmen's Association , sometimes called the 'First International', united some diverse European revolutionary currents, including French followers of Proudhon , Blanquists , English trade unionists, Socialists and Social Democrats . Due to its genuine links to active workers movements the International became a significant organization. Karl Marx was a leading figure in the International and a member of its General Council. Proudhon's followers, the Mutualists , opposed Marx's State Socialism , advocating political abstentionism and small property holdings. Mikhail Bakunin joined in 1868, allying with the anti-authoritarian socialist sections of the International, who advocated the revolutionary overthrow of the state and the collectivization of property. At first, the Collectivists worked with the Marxists to push the First International into a more revolutionary socialist direction. Subsequently, the International became polarised into two camps, with Marx and Bakunin as their respective figureheads. The clearest difference between the camps was over strategy. The anarchist collectivists around Bakunin favoured (in Kropotkin's words) "direct economic struggle against capitalism, without interfering in the political parliamentary agitation." {Link without Title} Marx and his followers focused on parliamentary activity and the need for structured political parties with central leadership and control. Bakunin characterised Marx's ideas as Authoritarian , and predicted that if a Marxist party came to power its leaders would simply take the place of the Ruling Class they had fought against.7 In 1872 the conflict climaxed with a final split between the two groups, when at the Hague Congress Marx engineered the expulsion of Bakunin and James Guillaume from the International and had its headquarters transferred to New York. In response, the anti-authoritarian sections formed their own International at the St. Imier Congress , adopting a revolutionary anarchist program. {Link without Title} Many contemporary debates among the Left can be traced back to the debate between Bakunin and Marx over the role of revolutionary parties in the revolution and in post-revolutionary society. Many leftists, communist and anarchist, reject the traditional Leninist and Bolshevist concept of a vanguard party prepared to form a new proletarian state, in part because of the historical failures of the Soviet Union but also out of concern for the development of an aparatchik/bureaucratic class that will replace the existing ruling class with their own bureaucratic dictatorship, although the radical communists do not share the anarchists' opposition to all political power (see a 1992 interview with Joelle Aubron , former leader of the militant urban guerilla group Action Directe in France). {Link without Title} Anarchist communism See Also: Anarchist communism Whereas Proudhon disliked the collective aspects of into Russian . Bakunin was to repudiate communism, however, which he associated with statism, for a form of Collectivist Anarchism . The collectivist anarchists advocated remuneration for labor but held out the possibility of a post-revolutionary transition to a communist system of distribution according to need. Bakunin's associate, James Guillaume , put it this way in his essay, '' Ideas on Social Organization '' (1876): "When… production comes to outstrip consumption… [e]veryone will draw what he needs from the abundant social reserve of commodities, without fear of depletion; and the moral sentiment which will be more highly developed among free and equal workers will prevent, or greatly reduce, abuse and waste." An early anarchist communist was ) Unlike Proudhon, he argued that "it is not the product of his or her labor that the worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature." {Link without Title} He announced his ideas in his US published journal Le Libertaire (1858-1861). '' that this was illustrated in nature. He advocated the abolition of private property through the "expropriation of the whole of social wealth" by the people themselves's work. Other important anarchist communists include Emma Goldman , Alexander Berkman and Errico Malatesta . Many in the anarcho-syndicalist movements (see below) saw anarchist communism as their objective. Isaac Puente 's 1932 '' El Comunismo Libertario '' {Link without Title} was adopted by the Spanish CNT as its manifesto for a post-revolutionary society. Some anarchists disliked merging communism with anarchism. A number of individualist anarchists maintained that abolition of private property was not consistent with liberty. For example, Benjamin Tucker, whilst professing respect for Kropotkin and publishing his work {Link without Title} , described communist anarchism as "pseudo-anarchism". Propaganda of the deed was an outspoken advocate of violence]] See Also: Propaganda of the deed Anarchists have often been portrayed as dangerous and violent, due mainly to a number of high-profile violent acts, including Riot s, Assassination s, Insurrection s, and Terrorism by some anarchists. Some Revolution aries of the late 19th century encouraged acts of political violence, such as Bomb ings and the Assassination s of Heads Of State to further anarchism. Such actions have sometimes been called ' Propaganda Of The Deed '. However, the term originally referred to exemplary forms of direct action meant to inspire the masses to revolution. Propaganda of the deed may be violent or nonviolent. There is no Consensus on the legitimacy or utility of violence in general. Mikhail Bakunin and Errico Malatesta , for example, wrote of violence as a necessary and sometimes desirable force in revolutionary settings. But at the same time, they denounced acts of individual terrorism. (Bakunin, "The Program of the International Brotherhood" (1869) and Malatesta, "Violence as a Social Factor" (1895)).[http://www.blackrosebooks.net/anarism1.htm Other anarchists, sometimes identified as Pacifist Anarchists , advocated complete Nonviolence . Leo Tolstoy , whose philosophy is often viewed as a form of Christian Anarchism ''(see below)'', was a notable exponent of Nonviolent Resistance . Anarchism in the labour movement See Also: Anarcho-syndicalism Anarcho-syndicalism is anarchism focusing on the labor movement ("syndicalism" being derived from the French ''syndicalisme'', meaning "trade unionism"). Anarcho-syndicalists view labour unions as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the State with a society self-managed by workers. Anarcho-syndicalists seek to abolish the wage system and private ownership of the means of production, which they believe lead to class division. After the 1871 Repression French anarchism reemerged, influencing the ''Bourses de Travails'' of autonomous workers groups and trade unions. From this movement the Confédération Générale Du Travail (General Confederation of Labour, CGT) was formed in 1895 as the first major anarcho-syndicalist movement. Emile Pataud and Emile Pouget 's writing for the CGT saw Libertarian Communism developing from a General Strike . After 1914 the CGT moved away from anarcho-syndicalism due to the appeal of Bolshevism . French-style syndicalism was a significant movement in Europe prior to 1921, and remained a significant movement in Spain until the mid 1940s. Spanish anarchist trade union federations were formed in the 1870's, 1900 and 1910. The most successful was the . Syndicalists like Ricardo Flores Magón were key figures in the Mexican Revolution . Latin America n anarchism was strongly influenced, extending to the Zapatista rebellion and the Factory Occupation Movements in Argentina. In Berlin in 1922 the CNT was joined with the International Workers Association , an anarcho-syndicalist successor to the First International . The largest organised anarchist movement today is in Spain, in the form of the Confederación General Del Trabajo (CGT) and the CNT . The CGT claims a paid-up membership of 60,000, and received over a million votes in Spanish Syndical elections. Other active syndicalist movements include the US Workers Solidarity Alliance , and the UK Solidarity Federation . The revolutionary industrial unionist Industrial Workers Of The World also exists, claiming 2,000 paid members. Contemporary critics of anarcho-syndicalism and revolutionary industrial unionism claim that they are Workerist and fail to deal with economic life outside work. Post-leftist critics such as Bob Black claim anarcho-syndicalism advocates oppressive social structures, such as Work , Workplace , and compulsory membership in Labor Union s, which violates the concept of individual autonomy by denying the Right To Work . The Russian Revolution See Also: Russian Revolution of 1917 The Russian Revolution Of 1917 was a seismic event in the development of anarchism as a movement and as a philosophy. Anarchists participated alongside the Bolsheviks in both February and October revolutions, many anarchists initially supporting the Bolshevik coup. However the Bolsheviks soon turned against the anarchists and other left-wing opposition, a conflict which culminated in the 1921 Kronstadt Rebellion . Anarchists in central Russia were imprisoned or driven underground, or joined the victorious Bolsheviks. In Ukraine anarchists fought in the Civil War against both Whites and Bolsheviks within the Makhnovshchina peasant army led by Nestor Makhno . Expelled American anarchists Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman before leaving Russia were amongst those agitating in response to Bolshevik policy and the suppression of the Kronstadt uprising. Both wrote classic accounts of their experiences in Russia, aiming to expose the reality of Bolshevik control. For them, Bakunin 's predictions about the consequences of Marxist rule had proved all too true. The victory of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the resulting Russian Civil War did serious damage to anarchist movements internationally. Many workers and activists saw Bolshevik success as setting an example; Communist parties grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the US for example, the major syndicalist movements of the CGT and IWW began to realign themselves away from anarchism and towards the Communist International . In Paris, the Dielo Truda group of Russian anarchist exiles which included Nestor Makhno concluded that anarchists needed to develop new forms of organisation in response to the structures of Bolshevism. Their 1926 manifesto, known as the Organisational Platform Of The Libertarian Communists , was supported by some communist anarchists, though opposed by many others. The ''Platform'' continues to inspire some contemporary anarchist groups who believe in an anarchist movement organised around its principles of 'theoretical unity', 'tactical unity', 'collective responsibility' and 'federalism'. Platformist groups today include the Workers Solidarity Movement in Ireland, the UK's Anarchist Federation , and the North Eastern Federation Of Anarchist Communists in the northeastern United States and bordering Canada and Québec. The fight against fascism , 1936 . Members of the CNT construct Armoured Car s to fight against the Fascist s in one of the Collectivised factories.]] In the 1920s and 1930s the familiar dynamics of anarchism's conflict with the state were transformed by the rise of Fascism in Europe. In many cases, European anarchists faced difficult choices - should they join in Popular Front s with reformist democrats and Soviet-led Communists against a common fascist enemy Luigi Fabbri , an exile from Italian fascism, was amongst those arguing that fascism was something different: :"Fascism is not just another form of government which, like all others, uses violence. It is the most authoritarian and the most violent form of government imaginable. It represents the utmost glorification of the theory and practice of the principle of authority." The Preventive Counter-Revolution, orginally published 1921 [http://www.blackrosebooks.net/anarism1.htm] Italy saw the first struggles between anarchists and fascists. Anarchists played a key role in the anti-fascist organisation Arditi del Popolo. This group was strongest in areas with anarchist traditions and marked up numerous successful victories, including the total humiliation of thousands of Blackshirts in the anarchist stronghold of Parma in August 1922. Unfortunately, anarchist calls for a united front against fascism were ignored by the socialists and communists until it was too late. A.5.5 Anarchists in the Italian Factory Occupations. In France, where the fascists came close to insurrection in the February 1934 riots, anarchists divided over a 'united front' policy. [http://melior.univ-montp3.fr/ra_forum/en/people/berry_david/fascism_or_revolution.html] In Spain, the CNT initially refused to join a popular front electoral alliance, and abstention by CNT supporters led to a right wing election victory. But in 1936, the CNT changed its policy and anarchist votes helped bring the popular front back to power. Months later, the ruling class responded with an attempted coup, and the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) was underway. In response to the army rebellion An Anarchist-inspired movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of the major City of Barcelona and of large areas of rural Spain where they Collectivized the land. But even before the eventual fascist victory in 1939, the anarchists were losing ground in a bitter struggle with the Stalinists . The CNT leadership often appeared confused and divided, with some members controversially entering the government. Stalinist-led troops suppressed the collectives, and persecuted both Dissident Marxists and anarchists. Since the late 1970s anarchists have been involved in fighting the rise of (US), Anti-Fascist Action (UK/Europe), Antifa '' Religious anarchism 1828-1910]] Most anarchist culture tends to be Secular if not outright Anti-religious . However, the combination of religious social conscience, historical religiosity amongst oppressed social classes, and the compatibility of some interpretations of religious traditions with anarchism has resulted in religious anarchism. Christian Anarchists believe that there is no higher authority than God , and oppose earthly authority such as Government and established churches. They believe that Jesus' teachings were clearly anarchistic, but were corrupted when "Christianity" was declared the official religion of Rome. Christian anarchists, who follow Jesus' directive to "turn the other cheek", are strict Pacifists . The most famous advocate of Christian anarchism was Leo Tolstoy , author of '' The Kingdom Of God Is Within You '', who called for a society based on compassion, nonviolent principles and freedom. Christian anarchists tend to form Experimental Communities . They also occasionally Resist Taxation . Christian anarchy can be said to have roots as old as the religion's birth, as the Early Church exhibits many anarchistic tendencies, such as communal goods and wealth. By aiming to obey utterly certain of the Bible's teachings certain Anabaptist groups of sixteenth century Europe attempted to emulate the early church's social-economic organisation and philosophy by regarding it as the only social structure capable of true obedience to Jesus' teachings, and utterly rejected (in theory) all earthly hierarchies and authority (and indeed non-anabaptists in general) and violence as ungodly. Such groups, for example the Hutterites , typically went from initially anarchistic beginnings to, as their movements stabilised, more authoritarian social models. Chinese Anarchism was most influential in the 1920s. Strands of Chinese anarchism included Taixu 's Buddhist Anarchism which was influenced by Tolstoy and the Well-field System . Buddhist anarchism was later revived in the 1960s by writers such as Gary Snyder . Neopaganism , with its focus on the environment and equality, along with its often decentralized nature, has lead to a number of neopagan anarchists. One of the most prominent is Starhawk , who writes extensively about both Spirituality and Activism . Anarchism and feminism ]] See Also: Anarcha-Feminism Early French Feminists such as Jenny D'Héricourt and Juliette Adam criticised the Misogyny in the anarchism of Proudhon during the 1850s. Anarcha-feminism is a kind of feminist movement. Anarcha-feminism, views Patriarchy as the first manifestation of hierarchy in human history; thus, the first form of oppression occurred in the dominance of male over female. Anarcha-feminists then conclude that if feminists are against patriarchy, they must also be against all forms of Hierarchy , and therefore must reject the authoritarian nature of the state and capitalism. Anarcho-primitivists see the creation of gender roles and patriarchy a creation of the start of Civilization , and therefore consider primitivism to also be an anarchist school of thought that addresses feminist concerns. Eco-feminism is often considered a feminist variant of green anarchist feminist thought. Early first-wave feminist and Voltairine De Cleyre . In the Spanish Civil War , an anarcha-feminist group, "Free Women", organized to defend both anarchist and feminist ideas. In the modern day anarchist movement, many anarchists, male or female, consider themselves feminists, and anarcha-feminist ideas are growing. The publishing of Quiet Rumors, an anarcha-feminist reader, has helped to spread various kinds of anti-authoritarian and anarchist feminist ideas to the broader movement. Anarcho-capitalism (1926-1995)]] See Also: Anarcho-capitalism Anarcho-capitalism is a predominantly United States-based theoretical tradition that desires an economic system of (spain) and the Anarchist Federation (UK), all take an explicitly anti-capitalist stance. However, several scholars do regard it as a form of anarchism.1) Raico, Ralph. ''Authentic German Liberalism of the 19th Century'', Ecole Polytechnique, Centre de Recherce en Epistemologie Appliquee, Unité associée au CNRS, 2004. 2) Sylvan , Richard. ''Anarchism''. A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy, editors Goodin, Robert E. and Pettit, Philip. Blackwell Publishing, 1995, p.231. Murray Rothbard 's synthesis of Classical Liberalism and Austrian Economics was germinal for the development of contemporary anarcho-capitalist theory. Rothbardian anarcho-capitalists believe the private property can result only from being the product of labor and that it may only be transferred by trade, gift, or abandonment (after a given period of time). Another prominent anarcho-capitalist is David D. Friedman . Some Minarchists , such as Ayn Rand and Robert A. Heinlein , have influenced anarcho-capitalism. Some anarcho-capitalists, along with some libertarian historians such as David Hart and , Ralph ''Authentic German Liberalism of the 19th Century'' Ecole Polytechnique, Centre de Recherce en Epistemologie Appliquee, Unité associée au CNRS (2004). Critics note that neither Molinari nor Herbert considered themselves to be anarchist, and argue that their theories were unanarchist. Interestingly, Molinari described his system as one of "competing governments" as well as "a free state." Anarcho-capitalist David Hart also suggests Molinari retreated from this view in his later writing, but many anarcho-capitalists nevertheless see Molinari's ideas as the first exposition of anarcho-capitalist theory. Significantly, Hart notes that Molinari was aware of Proudhon and as a direct result rejected the term "anarchist" as this "was intimately linked with [Proudhon's socialist and statist economic views." Proudhon, in return, argued that the "school of Say" was "the chief focus of counter-revolution next to the Jesuits" and that, currently, free market capitalism was "the foundation of government." The General Idea of the Revolution, p. 225 and p. 226 For more on debate about the place of anarcho-capitalism within anarchism see '' Anarchism And Anarcho-capitalism ''. Anarchism and the environment See Also: Green anarchism Eco-anarchism Social ecology Anarcho-primitivism Ecofeminism Green syndicalism Since the late 1970s anarchists in Anglosphere and European countries have been agitating for the natural environment. Eco-anarchists or Green Anarchists believe in Deep Ecology . This is a worldview that embraces Biodiversity and Sustainability . Eco-anarchists often use Direct Action against what they see as earth-destroying institutions. Of particular importance is the Earth First! movement, that takes action such as Tree Sitting . Another important component is Ecofeminism , which sees the domination of nature as a metaphor for the domination of women. Murray Bookchin 's work on Social Ecology , David Watson 's work with Fifth Estate magazine, Steve Booth 's work in the UK publication Green Anarchist , and Graham Purchase 's writings on Green Syndicalism have all contributed to the broad variety and scope of green anarchist/eco-anarchist thought and action. Green anarchism also involves a critique of industrial capitalism, and, for some green anarchists, civilization itself. Primitivism is a predominantly Western philosophy that advocates a return to a pre-industrial and usually pre-agricultural society. It develops a critique of industrial civilization. In this critique Technology and Development have Alienated people from the natural world. This philosophy develops themes present in the political action of the Luddites and the writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau . Primitivism developed in the context of the Reclaim The Streets , Earth First! and the Earth Liberation Front movements. John Zerzan wrote that Civilization — not just the state — would need to fall for anarchy to be achieved. Anarcho-primitivists point to the anti-authoritarian nature of many 'primitive' or hunter-gatherer societies throughout the world's history, as examples of anarchist societies. Other branches and offshoots Anarchism generates many eclectic and syncretic philosophies and movements. Since the Western social ferment in the 1960's and 1970's a number of new movements and schools have appeared. Most of these stances are limited to even smaller numbers than the schools and movements listed above. ]]
Other issues
Criticisms of anarchism Main article: Violence. Since anarchism has often been associated with violence and destruction, some people have seen it as being too violent. On the other hand, Frederick Engels criticised anarchists for not being violent enough: "A revolution is certainly the most authoritarian thing there is; it is the act whereby one part of the population imposes its will upon the other part by means of rifles, bayonets and cannon — authoritarian means, if such there be at all; and if the victorious party does not want to have fought in vain, it must maintain this rule by means of the terror which its arms inspire in the reactionists. Would the Paris Commune have lasted a single day if it had not made use of this authority of the armed people against the bourgeois?" Utopianism. Anarchism is often criticised as unfeasible, or plain once said, "I am an anarchist not because I believe anarchism is the final goal, but because there is no such thing as a final goal" (The London Years, 1956). However, other anarchists, such as Sir Herbert Read , proudly accept the characterization "utopian." Hypocrisy. Some critics point to the argues that the treatment of fascists and suspected fascist sympathizers by Spanish Anarchists in the Spanish Civil War was a form of illegitimate coercion, making the professed anarchists "ultimately just a third faction of totalitarians," alongside the communists and fascists. He also criticizes the willingness of the CNT to join the (statist) Republican government during the civil war, and references Stanley G. Payne 's book on the Franco regime which claims that the CNT entered negotiations with the fascist government six years after the war. Caplan , Bryan. ''" The Anarcho-Statists of Spain "'' ''', most recently in relation to Anti-capitalist protesters. Tacit authoritarianism. In recent decades anarchism has been criticised by 'situationists' and others of preserving 'tacitly statist', authoritarian or bureaucratic tendencies behind a dogmatic facade. ''Society of the Spectacle Paragraph 91 Post-anarchists share similar concerns regarding the methods, rather than intentions, of some anarchists. For instance, they reject Revolution , seeing means of forceful anarchism as effectively authoritarian and only transforming power rather than eliminating it. Nationalism. In recent years, an obscure movement known as National Anarchism emerged, which mixes anarchist, Fascist and Racialist beliefs. They advocate racial separation, as well as political, social, and economic decentralization. The vast majority of anarchists consider national anarchism to be inherently Racist and consider it inconsistent with anarchism. Some critics argue that the reason why anarchism has failed to be a major political movement is that it always invariably leads to a type of feudalism, as different "free" groups begin to bunch together. As the saying goes, "strength in numbers". Cultural phenomena (1928–)]] The kind of anarchism that is most easily encountered in popular culture is represented by celebrities who publicly identify themselves as anarchists. Although some anarchists reject any focus on such famous living individuals as inherently élitist, the following figures are examples of prominent publicly self-avowed anarchists:
In Denmark , the Freetown Christiania was created in downtown Copenhagen . The housing and employment crisis in most of Western Europe led to the formation of Communes and squatter movements like the one still thriving in Barcelona , in Catalonia . Although not always explicitly anarchist, militant Resistance To Neo-Nazi Groups in places like Germany, and the uprisings of Autonomous Marxism , Situationist , and Autonomist groups in France and Italy also helped to give popularity to anti-authoritarian, non-capitalist ideas. In various musical styles, anarchism rose in popularity. Most famous for the linking of anarchist ideas and music has been punk rock, although in the modern age, hip hop, and folk music are also becoming important mediums for the spreading of the anarchist message. In the UK this was associated with the Punk movement; the band Crass is celebrated for its anarchist and Pacifist ideas. ''For further details, see Anarcho-punk and List Of Anarchist Musicians .'' See also There are many concepts relevant to the topic of anarchism, this is a brief summary. There is also a more extensive List Of Anarchist Concepts .
Historical events
Books See Also: List of anarchist books
Anarchism by region/culture
References These notes have no corresponding reference in the article. They might be re-used. # Note|praxeology}} {Link without Title} # Note|platform}} {Link without Title} # Note|appleton}} Against Politics - Appleton - Boston Anarchists # Note|Yarros-NotUtopian}} Yarros, Victor ''Liberty'' VII, January 2 1892 . # Note|totse}} Noam Chomsky on Anarchism by Noam Chomsky External links The overwhelming diversity and number of links relating to anarchism is extensively covered on the Links Subpage .
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