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Cantonese is usually referred to as a spoken variant, and not as a written variant. Spoken vernacular Cantonese differs from standard written Chinese, which is essentially formal Standard Mandarin in written form. Written Chinese spoken word for word sounds overly formal and distant in Cantonese. As a result, the necessity of having a written script which matched the spoken verse increased over time. This resulted in the generation of additional Chinese characters to complement the existing characters. Many of these represent phonological sounds not present in Mandarin. A good source for well documented Cantonese words can be found in the scripts for Cantonese Drama and Cantonese Opera . With the advent of the computer and standardization of character sets specifically for Cantonese, many printed materials in predominantly Cantonese spoken areas of the world are written to cater to their population with these written Cantonese characters. As a result, mainstream media such as newspapers and magazines have become progressively less conservative and more colloquial in their dissemination of ideas. Generally speaking, some of the older generation of Cantonese speakers regard this trend as a step "backwards" and away from tradition. This tension between the "old" and "new" is a reflection of a transition that is being undergone by the Cantonese speaking population. HISTORY Before the 20th century, the standard written language of China was Classical Chinese , which has grammar and vocabulary based on the Chinese used in ancient China, Old Chinese . However, while this written standard remained essentially static for over two thousand years, the actual spoken language diverged further and further away. Some writings based on local Vernacular speech did exist but these were rare. In the early 20th century, Chinese reformers like Hu Shi saw the need for language reform and championed the development of a vernacular that allowed modern Chinese to write the language the same way they speak. The vernacular language movement took hold, and the written language was standardized as Vernacular Chinese . However, the Chinese spoken varieties used across China are not all the same, and because the Mandarin dialects comprised the largest proportion of the Chinese speaking population, Vernacular Chinese was based mostly on the grammar and vocabulary of Mandarin. The standardization and adoption of Vernacular Chinese as standard written Chinese pre-empted the development and standardization of other vernaculars based on other Chinese varieties. No matter what dialects one spoke, one still wrote in standard written Chinese for everyday writing. However, Cantonese is unique among the non-Mandarin spoken varieties in having a widely used colloquial written form. Also Cantonese is one of the few spoken varieties to have a substantial number of non-Mandarin speakers. This is due in part to the fact that Hong Kong , a Cantonese-speaking territory, was outside of Chinese control for over a hundred years before the British handover to the People's Republic Of China in 1997 . Many Cantonese speakers may find it more convenient to write exactly what they actually speak in a conversation. That is a motive of creating written Cantonese. But even so, this kind of writing is considered by some people as informal, non-standard and unprofessional. Cantonese speakers have to use standard written Chinese in most formal written communications, since written Cantonese contains many specific characters and grammatical structures that may be unfamiliar or even unreadable to other speakers of other Chinese spoken variants. Historically, written Cantonese has been used in Hong Kong for legal proceedings in order to record the exact testimony of a witness, instead of paraphrasing in standard written Chinese. However, its popularity and usage has been rising in the last two decades, the late Wong Jim being one of the pioneer of using it as an effective written language. Written colloquial Cantonese has become quite popular in certain Tabloid s, online Chat Room s, and Instant Messaging . Some tabloids like '' Apple Daily '' write colloquial Cantonese; papers may contain editorials that contain Cantonese; and Cantonese-specific characters can be increasingly seen on advertisements and billboards. Written Cantonese remains limited outside of Hong Kong, even in other Cantonese-speaking areas such as Guangdong , where the use of colloquial writing is discouraged. Despite the relative popularity of written Cantonese in Hong Kong, some disdain it, believing that being too accustomed to write in such a way would affect a person's ability to use standard written Chinese in exigent situations. CANTONESE CHARACTERS Written Cantonese contains many characters not used in standard written Chinese in order to transcribe colloquially spoken words. Because written Cantonese is not really a standard written language, there can be many discrepancies in the way certain words are written. In the 1990 s, the government of Hong Kong attempted to standardize this set of characters and released the Hong Kong Supplementary Character Set for use in electronic communication. Even still, there is often no consensus on what characters are often the "correct" ones to use. Synonyms Some characters used to represent words in Cantonese are simply Synonym s of words used in standard written Chinese. The most common are the character for the verb "to be" (是) and the character for "not" (不), which are simply replaced by 係; and 唔, respectively. Another example is the Third-person Pronoun (他/她 "he/she"), which is replaced by 佢. The plural pronoun marker (們) is replaced by 哋. The possessive Particle (的) is replaced by 嘅. For instance: Is it theirs? :係唔係佢哋嘅？ (Cantonese) :是不是他們的？ (Standard Chinese) :literally: "be not be they POSSESSIVE?" Cognates There are certain words that share a common root with words in standard written Chinese. However, because they have diverged in pronunciation, tone, and/or meaning, they are often written using a different character. One example is the Doublet 來 loi4 (standard) and 嚟 lei4 (Cantonese), meaning "to come." Both share the same meaning and usage, but because the colloquial pronunciation differs from the literary pronunciation, they are represented using two different characters, 嚟 and 來, respectively. Some people argue that representing the colloquial pronunciation with a different (and often extremely complex) character is superfluous, and encourage using the same character for both forms since they are Cognate s (see Derived Characters below). Native words Some characters are native to Cantonese and have no equivalents in Standard Chinese (though equivalents may exist in other varieties of Chinese). Another situation is that some Cantonese words, with their corresponding characters, did exist in Standard Chinese in ancient times. These words and characters, however, have been discarded in Standard Chinese for long; and the words, ''not'' the characters, survive in Cantonese. Today those characters can mainly be found in ancient dictionaries or "rhyme books" (韻書). Some scholars have made some "archaeological" efforts to find out what the original characters are. Most of those proper characters discovered cannot even be typed, though. On the other hand, some of the characters have only been corrupted in Cantonese, not disappeared in Standard Chinese. For instance, the common word leng3 (meaning pretty) is usually written with the character 靚 in Cantonese (the character has another meaning in standard Chinese). The word should indeed be written with the character 令, as 令 used as an adjective to mean "pretty" still survives in the idiom 巧言令色 (roughly meaning "skillful talk and pretty manners"). Sometimes the pronunciation of a word changes when it is used in a certain phrases in Cantonese, and people cannot recognise the word, trying to write it with a different, often self-made, character. For example, the word 微 (mei4) is a common one in both Cantonese and Standard Chinese, meaning small, soft or weak; in Cantonese there is the phrase siu3 mei1mei1 (smiling softly), which should be written as 笑微微; however, as the sound of 微 has changed from mei4 to mei1, people do not recognise the word, writing the phrase as 笑咪咪, 咪 being a tailor-made Cantonese character. ''See Chinese Character Encoding '' Loanwords These are characters created to represent loanwords borrowed into Cantonese. Examples:
Particles Cantonese is famous for the use of particles in speech. Some are added to the end of a sentence while others are suffixed to verbs to indicate tense. There are many such particles; here are a few.
''See Cantonese Grammar '' CANTONESE WORDS In Chinese, distinction is made between single syllable Characters , which may represent either a Word , Morpheme , or Particle , and multi-syllabic words. Characters are generally represented by a unique character, while a word may be composed of two or more characters, which may not be necessarily related in meaning. Thus, some Cantonese words may use existing characters to form words which do not exist or possess different meaning in standard Chinese. Loanwords Some Cantonese loanwords are not necessarily written with new characters and simply use the pronunciations of existing Chinese characters. Because many loanwords originated from Hong Kong or Overseas Chinese , they often use different characters and pronunciations than the Mandarin Chinese equivalents (if they exist). Examples:
see {Link without Title} for a list of loan words in Cantonese. CANTONESE CHARACTER FORMATION Cantonese characters, as with regular Chinese characters, are formed in one of several ways: Borrowings Some characters already exist in standard Chinese, but are simply reborrowed into Cantonese with new meanings. Most of these tend to be archaic or rarely used characters. An example is the character 子, which means "child". The Cantonese word for child is represented by 仔(jai), which has the original meaning of "young animal". Marked Phonetic Loans Many characters used in colloquial Cantonese writings are formed by putting a mouth radical (㗎, 口) on the left hand side of another more well known character, usually a standard Chinese character. This indicates that the new character sounds like the standard character, but is only used phonetically in the Cantonese context. The characters which are commonly used in Cantonese writing include:
There is evidence that the mouth radical in such characters can, over time, be replaced by a Signific, which indicates the meaning of the character. The new character is then a Semantic Compound . For instance, 冧 (lam1, "bud"), written with the signific 冖 ("cover"), is instead written in older dictionaries as 啉, with the mouth radical. The development of new Cantonese characters is interesting linguistically, because they have never been subject to government standardization, in contrast to Standard Chinese, which has been regulated for over 2000 years. Therefore, a better understanding can be gained of the linguistics of how Chinese writing evolves, and how the script is modelled perceptually by the Chinese reader. Derived characters Other common characters are unique to Cantonese or deviated from their Mandarin usage, they include: 乜, 冇, 仔, 佢, 佬, 係, 俾, 靚 etc. The words represented by these characters are sometimes 來/嚟, which means "to come". 來(loi4) is used in formal writing; 嚟 (lei4) is the spoken Cantonese form. ''See also: Derived Characters '' Colloquial usage As not all Cantonese words can be found in current encoding system, or the users simply don't know how to enter such characters on the computer, in very informal speech, Cantonese tends to use extremely simple romanization (e.g. use D as 啲), symbols (add an English letter "o" in front of another Chinese character; e.g. 㗎 is defined in recent versions of Unicode, but will not display in many browsers due to lack of proper fonts or the browser's failure to use the correct fonts. hence the proxy o架 is often used), homophones (e.g. use 果 as 嗰), and Chinese characters with different meanings in Mandarin (e.g. 乜, 係, 俾; etc.) to compose a message. For example, "你喺嗰喥好喇, 千祈咪搞佢啲嘢。" is often written in easier form as "你o係果度好喇, 千祈咪搞佢D野。" (character-by-character, approximately 'you, being, there (two characters), good, (final particle), thousand, pray, don't, mess with, him, (genitive particle), things', translation 'You'd better stay there, and please don't mess with his/her stuff.') EXTERNAL LINKS
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