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The study of Neofascism and Religion is a controversial area that examines the parallels and intersections between what are purported to be various forms of neofascism and contemporary religions and religious movements. TERMINOLOGY Although the assertion that religious fundamentalists and militants are "fascists" can often be understood as a Hyperbolic political attack that uses The Term Fascism As A Political Epithet Or Slur , there are also some scholars who have used the term in discussing certain religious movements. Most scholars consider Fascism to be an Authoritarian political movement associated with the Extreme Right . First adopted in Italy during the 1930s , Fascism spread across Europe between World War I and World War II . ''Neofascism'' is the term used to describe fascist movements active after World War II. Modern colloquial usage of the word sometimes extends the definition of the terms ''fascism'' and ''neofascism'' to refer to any Totalitarian worldview regardless of its political ideology; however this is problematic to most scholars. Some scholars, using the term ''neofascism'' in its narrow sense, consider certain contemporary religious movements and groups to represent forms of Clerical or Theocratic neofascism, including Christian Identity in the United States ; some militant forms of politicized Islamic Fundamentalism ; some militant forms of Jewish Nationalism ; militant Hindu nationalism in India ( Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh ); and a variety of Pagan alternative religions. ''Groups and movements that are not constructed around a religious identity or theology are discussed on the pages Neo-Fascism and Neo-Nazism .'' FASCISM AS A SOCIAL MOVEMENT To understand how religion and fascism can merge, it is important to see the difference between fascism in state power and fascism as a social movement prior to obtaining state power. Early fascism was a mixture of Syndicalist notions with a Hegelian or idealistic theory of the state; the latter was linked to an extreme Nationalism . Both early and later fascism viewed the state as an organic entity rather than as an institution to protect collective and individual rights. Fascists often defined themselves in opposition to Laissez-faire Capitalism , Socialism , Marxism , and Democracy . Subsequently, the term ''fascism'' has been used less rigorously: "Fascism is an especially virulent form of extreme ; and Clerical Fascist movements such as the Romania n Iron Guard and the Croatia n Ustashi . Since WWII, neofascists have reinterpreted fascist ideology and strategy in various ways to fit new circumstances." Chip Berlet, 2003, "Terminology: Use with Caution." ''Fascism''. Vol. 5, Critical Concepts in Political Science, Roger Griffin and Matthew Feldman, eds. New York, NY: Routledge. Scholar Roger Griffin , argues that "fascism is best defined as a revolutionary form of nationalism, one that sets out to be a political, social and ethical revolution, welding the 'people' into a dynamic national community under new elites infused with heroic values. The core myth that inspires this project is that only a populist, trans-class movement of purifying, cathartic national rebirth (palingenesis) can stem the tide of decadence" (Griffin, ''Nature of Fascism'', p. xi). This concept of fascism as Palingenesis is complementary with the idea of James Rhodes that fascism is a form of apocalyptic millenarianism; and with the work of Emilio Gentile where fascism is seen as a form of "political religion." Roger Eatwell has also looked at this issue: :"Religions…involve some form of belief in a supernatural being(s). However, this misses a point that all modern ideologies exhibit dimensions of religions. Even 'rationalist’ ideologies like liberalism have an affective side to their appeal, especially if studied in concrete political situations rather than through the dry texts of their great thinkers. Compare the pomp and circumstance surrounding the contemporary US Presidency with the restrained rationalism of James Madison ’s eighteenth century writings on the emerging US Constitution . Or consider the question why do many liberals seem to need to be at war, metaphorically at least, with those who do not share their views? - a question which points to interesting conclusions about much of liberal historiography's demonization of fascism as an un-intellectual creed!" :"A more fruitful way of distinguishing between ideology and religion is to adapt Søren Kierkegaard 's view that the essence of a religion is not the persuasion of the truth of the doctrine, but a leap of faith to accept a view which is inherently absurd. What could be more absurd than to believe that God allowed his only son to be born of a virgin in a lowly stable in Bethlehem over 2000 years ago? Christianity is a religion because of this core absurdity – this need for a leap of faith. Fascism’s essential syncretism meant that it was possible to find forms, which overtly married ideology and religion - for example, in the Iron Guard, or among a limited number of Italian and German clerics (though most failed to see the radicalism at the core of fascism). Moreover, there were aspects of fascism, which were absurd - especially the belief of some Nazis that there was an international Jewish conspiracy against Germany, which encouraged a belief in apocalyptic holy war against the Jew. However, most fascists were not driven by such affective sentiments. Indeed, there is nothing absurd about the core ideology of generic fascism – namely the quest to forge a holistic nation and create a radical syncretic Third Way state." "Reflections on Fascism and Religion" . Many people of faith feel that comparing their religion to secular ideologies such as Nazism or other forms of fascism is very offensive. However, the holy books and texts of many major world religions can be read to support the idea of divine right monarchy and Absolute Monarchy in forms that are Theocratic , Theonomic , or Totalitarian . CHRISTIANITY The association between Christianity and fascism is highly contentious. Discussions of how Fascism and Christianity were linked in some European countries between World War One and World War Two can be found at Clerical Fascism . The U.S. Christian right "Christian fascism" or "Christofascism" is a term used primarily on the Political Left , as well as by some Libertarians , to describe what they see as an ''emerging'' proto-fascism and to warn that action is needed to stop the possible emergence of a Theocratic fascist society. Some place this in the context of a claim that the United States itself is heading toward fascism {Link without Title} . Advocates of this view include Carl Davidson, who has written an essay: "Globalization, Theocracy and the New Fascism: Taking the Right's Rise to Power Seriously" This view is dismissed as hyperbolic by many scholars of neofascism, while some scholars support this hypothesis. David Neiwert has two essays that discuss these debates in detail. [http://dneiwert.blogspot.com [http://dneiwert.blogspot.com/The%20Rise%20Of%20Pseudo%20Fascism.pdf] Calling some portion of the Christian Right "Fascist" has become an increasingly popular tendency in the political Left, including the Christian Left. For example, the Reverend Rich Lang of the Trinity United Methodist Church of Seattle , gave a sermon titled '' George Bush and the Rise of Christian Fascism'' in which he said ''"I want to flesh out the ideology of the Christian Fascism that Mr. Bush articulates. It is a form of Christianity that is the mirror opposite of what Jesus embodied. It is, indeed, the materialization of the spirit of Antichrist : a perversion of Christian faith and practice..."''. Other forms Further out from the Christian Right are two movements where there is more scholarly support for charges of neofascism: Christian Identity and Christian Reconstructionism . Christian Identity There are versions of the Christian Identity religious movement that adopt neofascist--and in some cases openly neo-Nazi ideologies. Michael Barkun's ''Religion and the Racist Right,'' is considered the major scholarly work on this topic. Christian Reconstructionism Karen Armstrong sees a potential for fascism in Christian Reconstructionism , and claims that the system of dominion envisaged by Christian Reconstructionist theologians R. J. Rushdoony and Gary North "is totalitarian. There is no room for any other view or policy, no democratic tolerance for rival parties, no individual freedom," (Armstrong, ''Battle for God'', pp. 361-362). Berlet and Lyons have witten the movement is a "new form of clerical fascist politics,"(''Right-Wing Populism in America'', p. 249). Many scholars consider Reconstructionism a quasi-fascist movement because it is explicitly opposed to religious liberty and human rights. Gary North has advocated a "Bible-based social, political, and religious order which finally denies the religious liberty of the enemies of God". Reconstructionist James B. Jordan argues that "the notion of human rights was introduced by Satan in the Garden of Eden, and the notion that men have inherent rights is simply a way of affirming original sin" {Link without Title} . Reconstructionists attempt to reverse the charges, citing the dictum of writes: :Concomitant with the progressive growth of large government and neutral statism has been the development of emphasis on personal freedom in Western culture. . . . Individualism and liberty become the only absolutes which govern interpersonal relations. To "be yourself" and do what is dictated by desire is the goal of life; thus responsibilities and standards of justice come to be seen as shackles. . . . when this is placed in the context of a socio-political order which affirms moral neutrality and is governed by arbitrary standards of crime and penology, the resultant increase in reprobate behavior, defiance of law, and indifference or disrespect for God are to be expected. [. . . The moral degeneracy of personal lives as well as the public depravity of our society keep accelerating. The lawless assumptions of man without God have resulted in a dreadful stalemate between the anarchy of the radicals and the latent totalitarianism of the statists. . . . Very few people genuinly appreciate the outcome.''Theonomy in Christian Ethics'', 3rd ed. (Nacogdoches, TX: Covenant Media Press, 2002), pp. 8-9, 37. ISBN 0967831733. Critics of the christofascism label Critics of the term "Christofascism" dismiss it as hyperbolic, and an "ill-advised attack on conservative Christians" {Link without Title} : :"You want political paranoia? You want guilt by association? You want flat-out looniness? Well, Joe McCarthy’s got nothing on the good liberal folks who are warning us about a takeover by “ Dominionist ” Christians." :"The notion that conservative Christians want to reinstitute slavery and rule by genocide is not just crazy, it’s downright dangerous. The most disturbing part of the Harper’s cover story (the one by Chris Hedges) was the attempt to link Christian conservatives with Hitler and fascism. Once we acknowledge the similarity between conservative Christians and fascists, Hedges appears to suggest, we can confront Christian evil by setting aside 'the old polite rules of democracy.' So wild conspiracy theories and visions of genocide are really excuses for the Left to disregard the rules of democracy and defeat conservative Christians — by any means necessary." {Link without Title} One person criticized by Kurtz is Katherine Yurica, who has written about the rise of Dominionism as a theocratic tendency in the Christian Right . Yurica responded to Kurtz and pointed out that she has not used the term "Christian Fascism" in her writings.[http://www.yuricareport.com/Dominionism/Conference/YuricaRespondsToKurtz%20.html Yurica has noted fascistic tendencies in Dominionism, but she does not consider people who believe in dominionism to be "Christian," a view similar to the statements by the Reverend Rich Lang cited above. ISLAM The discussion of the existence of various forms of "Islamic fascism" is highly contentious. Critics associate the term "Islamic fascism" with groups of Islamic fundamentalists like the Taliban which governed Afghanistan , Al Qaeda , Hamas , and Hezbollah . Several other outspoken Critics Of Islam go even further, and claim that Islam itself is fascistic, arguing that Islam shares with fascism what they claim are its essential characteristics, such as Supremacism , leader worship, Exclusionism , totalitarianism and glorification of violence. These critics do not generally discuss the philosophical bases of fascism, nor do they tend to cite fascist thinkers, but rather approach their understanding of Islamist philosophy by operating a checklist of perceived evils that they consider Islamism and fascism to share. On the other hand, Daniel Pipes equates only militant Islamism to fascism. Thus Pipes and most others critics say they refer to a small number of Islamist zealots, including Terrorist groups such as Al Qaeda . The use of the term "Islamofascism" is contentious and discussed on the page . Concepts and terms Although the concept of clerical fascism is used widely in analyzing certain forms of fascism, is it fair to apply it to certain forms of theocratic Islamic fundamentalism? Some scholars say it is fair, including Walter Laqueur who discusses fascistic influences on militant Islam in his book ''Fascism: Past, Present, Future.'' Robert S. Wistrich has described Islamic fascism as adopting a totalitarian mind-set, a hatred of the West, fanatical extremism, repression of women, loathing of Jews, a firm belief in conspiracy theories, and dreams of global hegemony. {Link without Title} J. Sakai, an analyst, has suggested that some middle class Islamists have formed groups that can be called fascist {Link without Title} . Many dispute the accuracy of the term "Islamic fascism". They argue that political ideologies in the Middle East derived from fascism have usually been violently opposed to ''). Fascist-derived ideologies in the Middle East such as the Kataeb Party , the Baath Party , and the Syrian Social Nationalist Party have been explicitly secular, and have drawn their strongest support from minority groups in the Arab world which feared the consequences of an Islamist government. The founders of the SSNP, the Baath, and the Kataeb were all Christians, and the movements have tended to have their strongest Muslim support from religious minorities like the Sunni Arabs of Iraq or the Alawite s of Syria . Discussions of Islamic neofascism often point to strands of and similar movements in Sunni Islam inspired by the writings of Sayyid Qutb , while others use the term neofascism to describe all highly politicized strains of Islam, including Shi'a radicalism as practiced in Iran. Politicized strains of Islam, which seek to replace secular governments in Muslim countries with Sharia law, are often simply called Islamist , but this is a broad political category which covers political movements such as Turkey 's Justice And Development Party which do not seek to overthrow secular constitutions. The classification of that party as Islamist is, however, disputed, precisely on those grounds. Others have proposed to classify it as an Islamic Democracy movement instead. The fascist influence on Islamism Some writers have claimed that Sayyid Qutb , the intellectual father of Islamism , was influenced by Alexis Carrel , the French fascist Eugenicist . Qutb cites Carrel more than any other source except the Koran although it is important to note that, in some of the portions cited, Qutb was distinguishing his philosophy from what he regarded as Carrel's scientific materialism. Qutb also quotes extensively from Carrel's critique of what he regarded as the intrinsic decadence of Western democracies. {Link without Title} {Link without Title} Several scholars, including Tariq Ali , Paul Berman , Aziz Al-Azmeh and Ibrahim M. Abu-Rabi find that Qutb's political ideas relating to the need for society to be remade by establishment of a ruling elite derive from Carrel's writings, although Carrel's racial and genetic terms are replaced by Qutb with religious terms. According to Rudolf Walther writing in '' Die Zeit '':
Abdal Hakim Murad , writing for The American Muslim , sees Qutb's anti-semitism as deriving from Carrel:
Youssef Choueiri also sees a connection between Qutb and fascist ideology:
Similarly, Aziz Al-Azmeh sees this same connection:
According to Tariq Ali:
John Calvert , writing in Orbis, the journal of the Foreign Policy Research Institute , sees resonances between Qutbian Islamist philosophy and both fascism and "bolshevism":
According to an article published on a Salafi Islamist website called www.salafipublications.com:
For more on the Qutb/Carrel connection, see the following sources:
Not all observers believe that Qutb adopted a fascist posture. For example, Robert Irwin, the Middle East editor of the Times Literary Supplement , writes "Qutb seems to have rejected all kinds of government, secular and theocratic, and, on one reading at least, he seems to advocate a kind of anarcho-Islam" {Link without Title} . According to . Finally, Khalid Durán , who coined the word Islamism , summed up his views on the fascist nature of this movement in his ''"Muslims and Islamists in America"'':
Critics of the islamofascism label A number of academics, however, disagree with the use of the term fascism in this context. Roger Griffin believes it stretches the term fascist too far to apply the term 'fascism' to "so-called fundamentalist or terrorist forms of traditional religion (i.e. scripture or sacred text based with a strong sense of orthodoxy or orthodoxies rooted in traditional institutions and teachings)." He does, however, concede that the United States has seen the emergence of hybrids of political religion and fascism in such phenomena as the Nation of Islam and Christian Identity, and that Bin Laden's al Qaeda network may represent such a hybrid. He is unhappy with the term 'clerical fascism,' though, since he says that "in this case we are rather dealing with a variety of 'fascistized clericalism.'" JUDAISM group '' Lehi '' wrote a letter to the Nazi German government in January 1941 offering to "actively take part in the war on Germany's side" in return for German support for "the establishment of the historic Jewish state on a national and totalitarian basis". This was before the Holocaust became known.]] Because Jew s suffered their worst national carnage during The Holocaust under the Fascist Nazis and their allies during the 20th century, the conflation of Judaism with fascism raises hackles well beyond the conflation of other religions with fascism. Also, because, on the one hand, there is the strong correlation of the religion—Judaism—with what has historically been viewed as a people, a nation, or even a race—the Jews—and on the other hand a substantial portion of the world's Jews today are citizens of the modern state of Israel and/or supporters in one or another degree of the (largely secular) ideology of Zionism , it is more difficult than in the cases of most other religions to disentangle religion from nationalism. Thus, except in the case of an explicitly religiously based movement, it is very difficult to say whether a given Israeli political movement is "Jewish" in the sense of the religion ''Judaism'' or of ''the Jews'' as a people. The terms ''Judeofascism'' and (even more contentious) ''Zionazism'' are ) Yet, some scholars claim to have found "fascistic elements" in the Kach party and Kahane Chai party in Israel ; and in certain Israeli settler movements and their supporters in the U.S. These parties were banned in Israel for their purported Racism against Arab s; their leaders have supported policies of "transfer" that would evict Arabs from Israel itself and even from other territories under Israeli control, although at no time did any of the founders or leaders of the parties declare or endorse policies that in any way compared to the actual Genocide that took place against the Jewish people during World war II or at any other time in recent recorded history. The policies of transfer or expulsion of Palestinians out of Judea, Samaria, and Gaza, is explicitly endorsed by the Israeli political party Moledet; {Link without Title} Moledet formed part of the coalition government with Likud during the previous administration but was expelled from the Government by Prime Minister Ariel Sharon when it refused to support his Gaza disengagement. Moledet's political philosophy is that Israeli Jews and Palestinians cannot live together and that Palestinians must be encouraged to leave voluntarily, or otherwise by war. Palestinians are referred to by Moledet as "evil beasts" who must be removed from Judea, Samaria, and Gaza; "As we are told: "And I will give peace in the Land, and you shall lie down, and none shall make you afraid; and I will remove evil beasts from the land and the sword shall not go through your land…" (LEVITICUS, 26:6)" HINDUISM Some critics of militant Hindu Nationalism in India see elements of fascism in the Hindutva ideology and the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) religious movement. The early RSS leaders were admirers of both Mussolini and Adolf Hitler . PAGANISM Paganism, pantheism, Odinism, and groups celebrating the Nordic heroic warrior myths do not automatically intersect with fascism, White supremacy or antisemitism. Examples of groups where fascism and paganism intersect include the White Order Of Thule and the Creativity Movement (formerly the World Church of the Creator). While members of the White Order of Thule practice a form of Odinism or Asatru, only a few followers of these pagan beliefs are White supremacist neonazis. Many pagan websites post disclaimers denouncing hate to make the distinction clear. While "Wotan" is one of the many names for the Norse god Odin, in fascist and White supremacist circles the name WOTAN is also used as an acronym for "Will Of The Aryan Nations." FASCISM AS VAGUE EPITHET See Also: Fascist (epithet) Some have argued that the term "fascism" itself has become hopelessly vague in the years following World War II, and that today it is little more than a pejorative epithet used by supporters of various political views to attempt to discredit their opponents. This view dates back to George Orwell , British writer and author of '' 1984 '' and '' Animal Farm '', who famously remarked: : "...the word ‘Fascism’ is almost entirely meaningless. In conversation, of course, it is used even more wildly than in print. I have heard it applied to farmers, shopkeepers, Social Credit , Corporal Punishment , Fox-hunting , Bull-fighting , the 1922 Committee , the 1941 Committee , Kipling , Gandhi , Chiang Kai-Shek , Homosexuality , Priestley 's broadcasts, Youth Hostel s, Astrology , women, dogs and I do not know what else ... Except for the relatively small number of Fascist sympathisers, almost any English person would accept ‘bully’ as a synonym for ‘Fascist’. That is about as near to a definition as this much-abused word has come." George Orwell: ‘What is Fascism?’ SEE ALSO General
Christianity For information on the role of Christianity in the German Nazi movements, see Nazism ; and on Nazis and religious mysticism, see Nazi Mysticism . For information on the role of Christianity and Orthodoxy in European fascist movements between World War One and World War Two, see Clerical Fascism and Fascism . For more detailed disussions on claims of fascistic tendencies in contemporary Christian Right movements and groups, see Dominionism , Dominion Theology , and Christian Reconstructionism . For information on the militant right-wing movement linked to Neo-Nazi ideology, see Christian Identity . Islam Judaism
Hinduism Paganism For information on the role of Paganism in the German Nazi movements, see Nazism ; and on Nazis and religious mysticism, see Nazi Mysticism and Persecution Of Heathens .
REFERENCES Footnotes General
Christianity
Islam
Judaism
Hinduism
Paganism
EXTERNAL LINKS General
Islam
For studies of the theology of Osama bin Laden and its intersections with palingenetic millenarianism, see:
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