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Many English terms have been used or considered for such purposes, such as ''American Indians'' (or simply ''Indians''), '' Native Americans '', '' First Nations '', ''Indigenous Peoples of America'', '' Amerindians '', '' Amerinds '', and more. However, none have found universal acceptance. Typical reasons for contesting a name are:
and several others. Further complications arise when translating names between different languages, since even words that are Closely Related Linguistically may have very different cultural loads in the respective speaker communities. In many countries some broad names have been defined by law, such as ''Native American'' and ''Alaskan Native'' in the United States , and ''First Nations'' and ''Aboriginal Peoples'' in Canada . Even in those cases, there may be lingering debates on whether certain groups fit the legal definition or not, or whether the name or its definition are adequate. "Self" names versus "Outsider" names People from an ethnic group generally wish to be called by the name they give themselves, if possible in their own language. This preference has gained importance recently as a means of avoiding ethnic discrimination. Unfortunately, this principle applies poorly to large multi-ethnic groups, since different sub-groups often have incompatible preferences. Moreover, every natural language has traditionally ignored this principle, exerting its privilege to invent its own ethnic terms for other peoples. English is no exception, and uses ''German'', ''Dutch'', and ''Albanian'', disregarding the self-appellations and preferences of those subjects. Not surprisingly, English names for the pre-Columbian Americans are largely assigned by tradition, and are not always accepted by the peoples themselves. Meanings of basic terms A major source of confusion and controversy is that many of the words that are or could be used in naming those peoples are inherently ambiguous or inappropriate. ''Indian'' The term ''Indian'' is commonly thought to have been born of the misconception by Christopher Columbus that the Caribbean islands were the islands in Southeast Asia known to Europeans as the Indies , which he had hoped to reach by sailing West. Even though Columbus's mistake was soon recognized, the name stuck, and for centuries the native people of the Americas were collectively called ''Indians''. The name has fallen out of use in the dominant culture of the West in the last few decades; partly because it belongs naturally to the natives or nationals of India , and so its other use was inherently ambiguous. Other reasons, specific to North America, are discussed in a later section. ''American'' To add to the confusion, the in general, it often refers specifically to the United States Of America and its territories. ''Native'' The word ''native'' has often been applied to ethnic groups to mean "a group who lived in some place before the arrival of other groups"; in this context, specifically, "before the arrival of the Europeans". However, the proper meaning of "native" is "born in", and thus the term ''native American'' or ''native of the Americas'' could be equally applicable to anyone born in the Americas or in United States. The word probably acquired the other (ethno-historical) sense in the early years of European naval exploration and colonial expansion, when the "natives" — the people "born in" the foreign countries — were indeed non-Europeans. Expressions such as ''native-born'' may be used to further qualify that the intended meaning is the common one (i.e., "born in or originating from a given place"), and not the formal, specific designation (i.e., "Native" in the sense of belonging to an identified indigenous group), if the context does not otherwise make this distinction clear. Furthermore, in the United States the expression ''Native American'' has acquired a specific technical and legal meaning, which is discussed in a later section. In principle this narrower sense is indicated by capitalizing the word ''native''. However, one must be aware that this Typographical detail is easily lost on readers, and of course ineffective in speech. The word native is also problematic because of its political implications, since "native" ethnic groups sometimes claim to have more rights — to natural resources, political offices, indemnities, cultural prestige, etc. — than the "non-native" groups who arrived later; the implication being that the "non-natives" are "aliens", "foreigners", "usurpers", etc. — even if their ancestors have lived in the place for many generations. Such claims (or the possibility thereof) may lead to rejection of the label by the "non-natives". These may argue, e.g., that the "natives" themselves were invaders to even earlier inhabitants; or that they are no longer residing on their "native" land; or that there is insufficient historical evidence of their native status; and so on. The issue boils down to the undecidable question of how long a group should reside in a place before it deserves the label "native". This reaction has actually occurred in the US, for example, against the term ''Native Americans''. ''Indigenous'' Even though the term ''indigenous'' may sound similar to "Indian", the two are quite unrelated. The term comes from Latin ''indigena'', "native", formed from ''indu'' "in" and ''gen-'' "beget". In spite of this etymology, the word is rarely used in the sense of ''born in''. Perhaps for being a more "scholarly" word, it is more often understood in the ethnic-historical sense, and commonly used that way in anthropology and related fields. ''Aboriginal'' and ''Aborigine'' The English adjective ''aboriginal'' and the noun ''aborigene'' come from a Latin phrase meaning "from the origin", which was first applied to native peoples of central Italy who were contemporaries of the Ancient Romans . According to this etymology, therefore, it could be used for ethnic groups who "were there since the beginning", i.e. the first to arrive in a region, or those who can be identified the earliest historical or archaeological records. Indeed, it has been occasionally used in this sense in English, at least 19th Century , for indigenous populations all over the world, including the Americas. However, this general use has been largely preempted by narrower legal or common usage definitions that it has received in some countries. Throughout most of the English-speaking world, it is commonly understood to refer to the Indigenous Australians . It has also special legal status in Canada (see below). Names for United States native peoples In the United States, ''Native American'' and ''American Indian'' are commonly used to denote the Indigenous Peoples In The United States . Both terms are almost exclusively used to describe the natives of the ''continental'' United States, usually excluding the indigenous peoples of Hawaii and the Aleut , Inuit , and Yupik peoples of the far north. The terms '' Alaska Natives '' is used for the indigenous peoples in Alaska (including the Inuit, Yupik, and Aleut), and '' Native Hawaiians '' is used for those of Hawaii. ''Indian'' and ''American Indian'' In North America the name ''Indian'' (and hence ''American Indian'') came to be negatively loaded and considered an offensive Ethnic Slur by many Native Americans, if only because it is a name that was imposed on them by their historical oppressors. The ''Indian'' stereotype that prevailed in Western movies until the 1970s is thought to have contributed to this situation. For that reason, non-Natives have generally avoided it since the 1980s. On the other hand, according to a recent survey, many Natives actually prefer ''Indian'' or ''American Indian'' to ''Native Americans'', and use the three terms interchangeably {Link without Title} . The term ''American Indian'' is often shortened to ''Indian'' when the context allows, e.g. in the name of the United States Bureau Of Indian Affairs . ''Native American'' The term ''Native American'' was introduced in the United States by anthropologists who hoped it would be more accurate than ''Indian'' and free from its negative stereotypes. It has in time acquired a fairly precise technical and legal sense, by force of many Law s and Treaties , and internationally-recognized Aboriginal Rights : roughly, but not precisely, the "ethnic groups indigenous to pre-Columbian America who are presently living in the United States". The phrase ''Native American'', intended in this sense, is usually capitalized, in order to reduce confusion with the common sense of ''native'' ("someone who is born in a place"). The name has been contested by some non-Native US citizens, especially in the 1970s and 1980s ; both for the perception that the name diminished their own status or rights, and also as part of the general backlash against " Political Correctness ", for which the term was often cited as an example The term is sometimes used informally, especially by people from the U. S., to refer to all indigenous peoples of all North America, including the US and Canada but not necessarily Mexico. However, people from those countries, especially from Canada, object to this usage as incorrect, or even "imperialistic". Some American Indians in the U.S. have misgivings about the term ''Native American''. For instance, Russell Means , a famous American Indian activist, opposes the term because he believes it was imposed by the government without the consent of American Indians {Link without Title} . Furthermore, some American Indians question the term ''Native American'' because, they argue, it serves to ease the conscience of "white America" with regard to past injustices done to American Indians by effectively eliminating "Indians" from the present. Another objection that has been raised to this term is that it seems to imply that the other indigenous peoples of (or in) the United states which are excluded from its scope, such as those of Hawaii and the Alaut, Inuit, and Yupik, are not "natives" to the Continent. ''Savage'' The term ''Savage'' is universally considered derogatory and bigoted. While some racist groups find it acceptable in the U.S., most activists have come to reject such archaic descriptions of human beings. ''Alaskan Native'' In Alaska , the term ''Alaskan Native'' predominates, because of its legal use in the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act ( ANSCA ) and because it includes the Aleut, Inuit and Yupik peoples, the three groups of native Alaskan peoples. '' Eskimos '' was once used for those groups, but this term is in disfavor because it is perceived by many of them as derogatory. Names for Canadian native peoples In Canada, the term '' Aboriginal Peoples In Canada '' is used for all indigenous peoples established in the country, including the Inuit and Inuvialuit , as well as the Métis . The term '' First Nations '' is used in a more restricted sense, for all the indigenous peoples in Canada except the Inuit, Inuvialuit, and Métis. ''First Nations'' In Canada, the term " First Nations " (most often used in the plural) has come into general use for the Indigenous Peoples of North America located in what is now Canada, and their descendants, who are neither Inuit or Métis . The singular commonly used on culturally politicized reserves is the awkward "First Nations person" (when gender-specific, First Nations man or First Nations woman). A more recent trend is for members of various nations to refer to themselves by their tribal/national identity only, e.g. "I'm Haida", "we're Kwantlens", in recognition of the distinctiveness and diversity of First Nations ethnicities. However, some tribal governments of Canada also use the term ''First Nations'' to refer to any indigenous, tribal or nomadic society. In this usage, the Roma , Sinti , Saami , Maori , Hmong , and the Australian Aborigines are also considered "First Nations". ''Canadian Indians'' The term ''Indians'' was once used to refer to the peoples now called First Nations, but it has fallen largely in disuse. However, it is still relevant in many legal and administrative contexts. The Canadian Indian Act , which defines the rights of recognized First Nations, does refer to them as ''Indians''. The federal government department in charge of First Nations affairs is the Department Of Indian And Northern Affairs headed by the Minister Of Indian Affairs And Northern Development . People officially recognized by the Indian Register under that act are commonly known as "Status Indians", although "Registered Indian" is the official term. Land set aside for the use of First Nations are known as Indian Reserve s. The term ''Indian'' is also used in the official names of many . ''Aboriginal Peoples in Canada'' The term ''Aboriginal'' is defined in the Canadian Constitution to include "all Indian, Inuit, and Métis peoples of Canada" (Constitution Act, 1982, Subsection 35(2). The term is understood to include also the Inuvialuit. The term is also used in the U.S., though somewhat less frequently. It is occasionally used in the U.K. The term ''Aborigines'' is not used in Canada to refer to indigenous American peoples. The alternative term ''Indigenous Peoples'' (or ''Tribes'', or ''Nations'') has been used as equivalent to ''Aboriginal Peoples''. ''Native Canadians'' "Native" or "Native Canadian" is an ambiguous term, but it is often used in conversation or informal writing. However, First Nations and Aboriginal Peoples seem to be more widely used. ''Anishinaabe'' The Algonquin term for "Original People", '' Anishinaabe '' or ''Anishinabe'', is used as a cross tribal term in Algonquian majority areas such as "Anishnabe Health" and "Anishnabe Education and Training Circle". Canadian French nomenclature In Canadian French , the terms are ''première(s) nation(s)'' for "First Nations" and ''autochtone'' instead of "Aboriginal" (used both as a noun and adjective). The term ''indien'' or ''indienne'' is used in the legislation, although the preferred term is now ''amérindien''. The term ''indigène'' is not used as it is seen as having negative connotations because of its similarity to the French equivalent of "indigent", i.e. "lazy". The old French term ''sauvage'' (meaning "wild") is no longer used either, as it is considered racist. Chinook Jargon nomenclature The Chinook Jargon , the old trade language of the Pacific Northwest, uses ''siwash'' - an adaptation of the French ''sauvage'' - to mean Indian/Native American/First Nation, either as adjective or noun. While normally meaning a male native, it is used in certain combinations, e.g. ''siwash cosho'' - meaning a seal, but literally "Indian pig/pork". Like ''sauvage'', ''siwash'' has come to have negative connotations in many native communities, while it remains in common parlance in others. When used by non-natives it is considered entirely derogatory except in placenames and certain other usages. In the creolized form of Chinook Jargon spoken at the Grand Ronde Agency in Oregon, a distinction is made between ''siwash'' and ''sawash''. The accent in the latter is on the second syllable, resembling the French original, and is used in Grand Ronde Jargon with the benign meaning of "anything native/Indian", while ''siwash'' is considered defamatory. The Chinook Jargon term for a native woman is ''klootchman'', an originally Nootkan word which became commonplace in regional English to mean a native woman, or (as in the Jargon), all women and also anything female. ''Hyas klootchman tyee'' = "queen", ''klootchman cosho'' = "sow", ''klootchman tenas'' or ''tenas klootchman'' - girl, little girl. Generally when used by itself in regional English ''klootchman'' means a native woman only, and did not acquire a derisive context as has ''siwash'' or ''squaw''. Names for native peoples in North America ''North American Native'' There is no accepted special name for all indigenous peoples in North America as a whole. The term ''North American Indian'' is often used for a member of the more restricted group comprising the First Nations in Canada together with the Native Americans in the US. This term is usually understood to exclude the Alaskan Natives and the Inuit and Métis of Canada, and the indigenous peoples of Mexico. Names for native peoples in Latin America ''Indigenous Peoples'' and ''Indians'' In Latin America , the preferred expression is ''Indigenous Peoples'' (''pueblos indígenas'' in Spanish , ''povos indígenas'' in Portuguese ). However, ''Indians'' (''indios'', ''índios'') is often used too, even by indigenous peoples themselves. In Mexico , Brazil , and several other countries, these names are normally applied only to the ethnic groups that have maintained their identity and, to a some extent, their original way of life. In those countries there is also a large segment of the population with mixed native and European ancestry, who are largely integrated in mainstream society, and no longer identify themselves with their ancestral native groups. These people were originally called '' Mestizo s'' in Mexico, ''caboclos'' in Brazil; however, those terms have largely fallen in disuse as they that segment has came to predominate among the population. ''Aborigenes'' The Spanish ''aborigen'', cognate of English ''Aborigene'', is also used in Spanish America, particularly in Chile and Argentina . The corresponding Portuguese term, ''aborígenas'', is almost never used in Brazil. ''Pre-Columbian'' and ''Pre-Cabraline Peoples'' The term "Pre-Columbian Peoples" (Sp. ''pueblos precolombinos'', Pt. ''povos pré-colombianos'') is used to refer to the ethnic groups that existed before the arrival of the Europeans, but not for their modern descendants. The term, of course, refers to Columbus , who landed in Hispaniola in 1492 . In Brazil, ''Pre-Columbian'' is often replaced by "Pre-Cabraline" (Pt. ''pré-cabralinos''), after '' Cabral '' who landed in Brazil in 1500 . Names for natives of both Americas For the natives of the Americas as a whole, the phrase ''indigenous peoples of the Americas'' can be considered self-defined by the accepted meanings of " Indigenous Peoples " and " Americas ", and seems to be the current preferred term in some anthropological and linguistic circles. Still, its precise meaning can be disputed. For example, it is debatable whether it includes the indigenous people of Hawaii and other US territories outside the Americas. While those peoples have no known historical, cultural, or genetic connection with the indigenous peoples of the Americas, from a political and legal viewpoint they should arguably be considered "indigenous peoples" of their respective countries. Other names that have been used or proposed for the indigenous peoples of both continents include: ''Indian'' As discussed above, this name is geographically ambiguous and negatively loaded, especially in the United States. ''American Indian'' Given the ambiguity of ''Indian'', it was often necessary to use ''American Indian'' in order to distinguish those peoples from the natives of the East Indies. However, as noted above, ''American'' itself is ambiguous. ''Red Indian'' In Britain and some other English-speaking countries outside the Americas, the term ''Red Indian'' is still used to differentiate the American natives from the "East Indians". However, in North America the term is now considered an offensive racial slur, and is rarely if ever used. ''Amerindian'' In the French -speaking world, the term ''Amérindien'' was coined for the same purpose. The term was imported into English as ''Amerindian'', sometimes abbreviated ''Amerind''. This term gained some popularity among linguists, anthropologists, and other social scientists. The term is officially used by The World Almanac. However, in scientific circles the term ''Amerind'' is often restricted to a subset of the indigenous peoples of the Americas, mostly from South and Central America, Mexico and the Southern United States. The peoples in this group share many genetic and cultural features that set them apart from the Na-Dene Peoples , which comprise the majority of the US and Southern Canada indigenous peoples, and from the Eskimo peoples in Alaska and the Canadian Artic ( Inuit , Yupik , and Aleut ). Many anthropologists believe that these Amerind peoples are the descendants of the first Immigrant Wave From Siberia (15,000–10,000 years ago). ''Native American'' or ''American Native'' At face value, ''Native American'' and ''American Native'' could be taken to mean indigenous peoples of the Americas. However, they are almost always understood to refer specifically for peoples in the United States, as discussed below. External links
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