Information AboutMongols |
|
|group=Mongols |image= |poptime=8.5 million |popplace= Mongolia , China , Russia , Kazakhstan |rels= Tibetan Buddhism , Christianity , Muslim , Shamanism , Atheism |langs= Mongolian |related= Khalkha , Daur s, Buryats , Evenks , Dorbots , Kalmyks , Oirats , Tuvans , Kazakhs , Chakhar s. }}The Mongols are an s, Daur s, Buryats , Evenks , Dorbots , Kalmyks , Oirats , Tuvans , Kazakhs , Chakhar s, Tumeds, Ordoses, Bayad, Dariganga, Urianhai, Uzemchin and Zakhchin. History See Also: History of Mongolia Genghis Khan Genghis Khan was originally called Temujin. He led his clan to unify the others into a literal military juggernaut that swept across the Asian continent and reached the fringes of Europe and the Holy Roman Empire. The Mongols were originally a confederation of tribes in competition with the Tatar Turks , Kerait , Merkit and Naiman confederations and therefore only one division of what is known today as the Mongol nation. Genghis Khan unified the Mongol people by absorbing the other confederations into his own and the word Mongol came to mean the entire people. Though few in number (approximately 2 million people at the height of their empire), Mongols were important in Eurasian history. Under the leadership of Genghis Khan, the Mongols conquered two third of the dry land of the globe and created the second largest empire in world history, ruling 35 million km&2 (13.8 million miles&2) and more than 100 million people, nearly equal to the British Empire in land area. At its height, the Mongol Empire spanned east from Manchuria to west to Hungary , from north to south from Russia to Java island in Indonesia and included most of the lands in between, such as Afghanistan , Turkey , Uzbekistan , Georgia , Armenia , Russia , Persia , Northern India , China , and much of the Middle East . The Mongols were a group of Nomadic People who in the 13th Century found themselves encompassed by large, city-dwelling agrarian civilizations. However, none of these civilizations, with the possible exception of the Islamic Caliphate located in Baghdad, were part of a strong central state. Asia , Russia , and the Middle East were either declining kingdoms, or divided city states. Taking the strategic initiative, the Mongols exploited this power vacuum and linked all of these areas into a mutually supportive trade network. Mongol Empire See Also: Mongol Empire on the eve of the Mongol invasions, c. 1200 CE.]] The Mongols were nomadic people who raise livestock by pasturing and produce everything they need from the herds. The unification of the Mongol tribes by Genghis Khan strengthened the country in the 13th century. Genghis Khan found himself being chased by his father's enemies since he was 9 years old when his father Yesugei , a chief of a tribe was died of poison served by his enemy Merkit clan at a wedding. At that time, Mongolia was divided into many small tribes and most of the tribal chiefs wanted more power over others. Therefore, many small wars and conflicts happened frequently at that time. Because of this, in the Mongols' rising time, people became respected political leaders by, among other things, demonstrating their martial virtues in combat. Fighting of Mongol tribes to each other were merely based on survival or death matters. This was more often than not done by raiding and fighting other Mongol tribes. The booty of such raids was then distributed by the leaders to their soldiers and allies in order to consolidate their political position. This is clearly attested by Genghis Khan's own personal history: Before he became the Great Khan, his own wife was kidnapped in a raid by Merkits - his father's enemies, and he had to organize a counter-attack to rescue her. This was based on a revenge of previous generations' acts as how Genghis Khan's father Yesugei married to his mother. Yesugei saw Oulen on the road as a bride for an arranged wedding with a Merkit and Yesugei fought and chased away the Merkit groom and his people who were protecting Oulen on the road. After that Yesugei married to Oulen. Therefore, Merkits became an enemy of Yesugei's clan Khyad and the revenge spanned to the next generation. Once Genghis Khan had unified the Mongols, he forbade these raids that contributed to the poverty and instability of the Mongol people. After unifying Mongols and officially establishing country Great Mongolia in 1206 , Genghis Khan decided to trade with other countries for other goods than animal livestock. Mongolia had abundant products from livestock, however, it was lacking flour and other products. Genghis Khan first sent 100 traders with animal goods to a small country's king which was inside today's Russian territory with a decree that said those were traders. However, the Russian king ordered to kill those Mongol traders and robbed their camels and goods, and sent back few survivors cutting their beard-which was the biggest humiliation of that time's Mongol culture. When he received the survivors, Genghis Khan announced war to the country to revenge for the killed traders. Genghis Khan won in that war and that was the beginning of Mongol empire's extension to other countries. According to the Secret History of Mongols, Genghis Khan never initiated war or attack to any country, it was mostly either revenge for killed messengers or traders. Before the wars, he always sent words to the countries' kings asking their defeat without human loss or war would take place. Conquest, in the Khan's initial viewpoint, did not consist of subordination of competing cultures to the nomadic way of life. Rather, if there was resistance, it took the form of looting and destruction. If there was no resistance, Mongols usually left the town unharmed and demanded that the townspeople pay them tribute. As a nomad, Genghis Khan is supposed to not have understood or cared about the supposed benefits of the city dwellers' way of life. This contrasts with their dependence on trade with the cities. However, theories on the economics of these relationships still lay seven centuries in the future. under Genghis Khan and subsequent Great Khan s]] The Khan's initial plan of conquest if there was resistance was to sack all that was valuable, and then raze the city killing the resisters and leaving only artists and human shields (for future campaigns) to survive. Genghis Khan himself was extremely supportive to people that were loyal to him, or loyal servants to their bosses, even his former enemies. Different theories exist as to why the Mongols initially behaved in such an extreme manner. From a military perspective, the Mongols were often far from home territory and greatly out-numbered, and therefore it was unwise to leave enemies at their rear. Terror also served as a useful weapon in reducing an opponent's ability to rally support against Mongol invasion. Economically, destroying population centers gave the Mongols more room to graze their herds. One such example is the capture of Zhongdu (中都 Zhōngdú) (roughly on the site of modern Beijing ) in 1215 . Rather than adding the city to the Mongol Kingdom, it was instead thoroughly sacked for silk and other valuables. As the Mongols grew more powerful, advisers convinced Genghis Khan to start building a Vassal empire. If the city-dwelling peoples were allowed to continue their way of life, they could produce a surplus of food and goods, a portion of which could be paid to the Khan as taxes. Given the Khan's extraordinary success in his aggressive foreign policy, this wealth could be equally extraordinary. The Khan agreed, taking his tribute in tax of 10%, and saving countless lives and cultures in the process. Until 1225 they continued their invasions through Western Asia, into Persia and Russia . In , grandson of Genghis and nephew of Ogedei, took the throne, through the assistance of his mother Sorghaghtani Beki . By this time, the Western expansion had lost its momentum. These events are credited in several Counterfactual historical scenarios with saving European civilization from a second "Dark Age" precipitated by Mongol conquest. Evidence given in support of such theories usually include the swift and crushing early victories of the Mongol campaign in Poland and Hungary, and the disunified state of the other European powers. Such scenarios, however carefully constructed, must always be viewed keeping in mind their nature as mere speculation. Ethnic, cultural and religious diversity The term ''Mongol'' referring to the 12th and 13th century Mongol reign presumably included soldiers and generals in the Middle East, China, Eastern and central Europe who all fought under the identity of being ''Mongols'' although not exclusively having a heritage in modern Mongolia. Because the army generals were chosen by their proven abilities in Mongol army and the country was spanning over Eurasia at that time. In addition to his own blood brothers, Genghis Khan had at least three adopted brothers of different nationalities and ethnic groups of Genghis Khan's enemies. Those adopted brothers were found by Genghis Khan's soldiers on savaged lands when they were young kids and given to Genghis Khan's mother Oulen. Those adopted brothers of Genghis Khan rose to high positions in Genghis Khan's armies and court by their skills taught by Oulen and their abilities. One of them is Shihikhutug who became the writer of Yasa - major law told by Gengkhis Khan on paper. Various members of the Mongol Court, including Sorghaghtani Beki, were Nestorian Christians. Mongols were originally Shaman s who pray for the superpower God which they understood that existed beyond the sky and look down from the blue sky. Mongols and Genghis Khan maintained a policy of being open to all religions, it was known as particularly sympathetic to Christian s (which may have helped to contribute to the legend of Prester John ). In 1253 the court followed the suggestion of Crusader Kingdoms in Syria to attack the Muslim capitals of Baghdad and Cairo , dispatching an enormous army commanded by Hulagu Khan . Baghdad Was Conquered And Sacked in 1258 with the city's Christians spared, and the Abbasid Caliph killed. However, with the troops on the road to Cairo, Mongka Khan died in 1259 and much of the force returned home for the selection of the new leader. Mamluk troops finally repelled the attack in 1260 , in the celebrated Battle Of Ain Jalut . This, and ultimately the "gates of Vienna," marked the farthest West the Mongol Empire would progress. Kublai Khan quickly succeeded Mongka Khan, moved the court to Beijing favoring warmer weather, formed the Yuan Dynasty , and re-started the invasion of China, in the first war with Guns on both sides. After 18 years, Kublai Khan conquered both Northern and Southern China, forming the largest (land) empire in history (famously described by Marco Polo ). However, by the early 14th Century , the prominence of trade and a possible cooling of the world's climates led to worldwide outbreaks of Plague , which encouraged revolt and invasion. Early Ming Emperors led campaigns into Mongolia and destroyed Harhorin and Khar Khot , but later Ming Emperors resorted to more defensive policies. Meanwhile, various Mongolian tribes fought against each other, usually Western Mongols ( Oirats ) against Eastern Mongols ( Chakhar s, Tumeds , Ordos es, or Khalkha s), and continued to threaten China's borders. The internal struggle gave the emerging Manchu s the possibility of assimilating the Mongol tribes bit by bit. In 1636, the Chakhar s of Inner Mongolia asked military help of Manchu for war against its brother Khalkha s and the Manchu Emperor agreed, however, instead of helping Inner Mongols, Manchuria attacked Inner Mongols during rest and conquered them before the war. In 1691, the Khalkha s of Outer Mongolia were converted into Tibetan Buddhism by their leader Zanabazar - great grandson of Genghis Khan . Zanabazar became Mongolia's first Buddhist monk that some historians believed that he was tricked by Manchu to become a monk for political purpose to change aggressive warrior nation into tolerant people. Zanabazar asked help of Manchuria n Emperor to win Khalkhas' Mongol brother the Oirat in war, in which Manchuria agreed, but Manchuria attacked Mongolia during night prior to the war and colonized Mongolia. In the 1750s, the Qianlong Emperor completely destroyed the Oirat s' Dzungar Empire in today's Xinjiang . Manchuria also colonized China in the 17th century and in 1911 both Mongolia and China took their independence from Manchurian colonization. Mongol military methods and innovation Ogedei Khan first introduced post system in the world. His established system was post people located every 10 miles with 2-3 horses to each direction from the capital city of Mongolia and when the Khan issued a decree the post people delivered it to the next post person, and the next post person to the another and the decree was delivered to any location needed with the shortest period of time. The system was named ''urtuu'' and the system worked until after 1921 in Mongolia. The post people got salary and they have special badge that is equal to today's police badge as the post people can use anyone's horse if necessary or in emergency and families and people had to give the post people food and water if the post people ask so. For a more detailed analysis see '' Military Advances Of Genghis Khan '' and '' Mongol Military Tactics And Organization ''. Scope of Mongol operations The Mongols were one of the most feared forces ever to take the field of battle. Operating in massive sweeps, extending over dozens of miles, the fierce horsemen combined a shock, mobility and firepower unmatched in land warfare until the gunpowder age. Other peoples such as the Romans had stonger infantry, and others like the Byzantines deployed more heavily armored cavalry. Still others were experts in fortification, but none combined combat power on land with such devastating range, speed, scope and effectiveness as the Mongols. The Mongols also deployed technical expertise, using siege experts, sappers and mass labor to help destroy fortified strongpoints. From their small niche on the Mongolian steppe, the Mongol warriors defeated some of the world's most powerful, well established and sophisticated empires, and claiming over one-twelfth of the world's land surface at their height, seen by some as the largest contiguous empire in human history -- stretching from Asia, to Europe to the Middle East. Weapons and equipment of the Mongols: the Mongols deployed three general weapons, bows, scimitars and lances. Of these the most important was the dreaded Mongol Bow. Some scholars (See Encyc Britannica -- Warfare, Conduct of) show two types of bows, one for long range markmanship and the other for shorter range work. Arrows were of different "calibers" for tactical purposes, ranging from warheads capable of penetrating heavy armor, to an assortment of longer range, more specialized heads like "fire" arrows. Like many Asiatic bows, the Mongol bow was a composite bow, made from glue, horn, sinew, wood and bamboo. Lances and scimitars were used for close range encounters within cities, or against dispersed enemies in the field. The central weapon however was the bow, with a range of over 200 yards. Morale and makeup of the Mongol warrior and their mounts: The Mongol was an exceedingly tough warrior. Reared on the harsh steppes of their native land, they were generally a short people, spending hours on horseback from childhood. They were used to privation and hardship, and were extremely dedicated. The Mongol was always seemingly identified with his horse -- the equally tough, hardy steppe pony. They were inseparable, not only providing the means of transport into battle, but very important to the Mongol steppe economy, providing milk, blood, and meat for food, hair and skin for clothing and tents, and glue and sinews for bow and arrow making. On the march, the Mongol warrior carried a string of ponies, rotating them as remounts to keep up the momentum of the advance. In a tight spot the Mongol would bleed selected ponies, using their blood to aussage his hunger. This extremely lean way of operation contributed to the rapidity of Mongol maneuvers. Characteristically, the Mongol was practical about his mounts, and would discard or slaughter them as demanded by the situation without sentiment. Organization and tactics and of the Mongols: Numerous accounts of the Mongols typically call them a "horde" as if they were merely a mob of savage, milling horsemen. Nothing could be further from the truth: the term "horde", in fact, derives from the Mongol "ordu", simply meaning camp. The Tumen (meaning 10,000) decimal system and leadership The armies of the Genghis Khan were organized by tens, hundreds, thousands, and tens of thousands, and each segment has commanders, who were chosen only by proven ability instead of relations to the Khan. - In reality they were tightly organized troops, parceled into units of ten, and from that basic building block, grouped into larger formations roughly corresponding to regiments and other units, finally culminating in the distinct field force of 10,000 horsemen, the famous Mongol tumen. Several of these divisional equivalents were grouped or subdivided as the situation demanded. Coordination was provided by designated unit leaders, with signalling provided via horns, smokes, flags etc. Whatever the exact mix or sub-division deployed, it usually spelled bad news for their opponents. Swarm/encirclement tactics and massed firepower in the field - Mongol tactics were marked by speed, surprise and massive mobility. They approached in widely separated columns, both to ease logistics as well as to gain maneuvering room. Once they had isolated their target, the toumans deployed in wide sweeps, convering on the enemy from several directions. Upon contact the Mongols played cat and mouse, standing-off while devastating opponents with massed arrow fire, or charging in close only to veer off while discharging yet another vicious rain of shafts. Opponents who took the bait and gave pursuit were quickly cut off and liquidated. The constant rain of arrows, the converging swarms of charges and probes, all carried out by the encircling Mongols were usually enough to "soften up" an enemy. Typically the opposing force broke and then the deadliest butchery began. As is well known, a force is most vulnerable in retreat, and the Mongols were ruthless. Flexible tactics -- ruses and ambushes- The Mongols were not rigid in their thinking, nor did they adhere to European notions of "chivalry". They deployed a wide variety of large or small tactical subdivisions as the action demanded, and feigned retreat to set traps for pursuers, conducted ambushes, and constantly probed and raided their enemies. Unsentimental in their approach to warfare, they did whatever it took to win. Mongol siege warfare and Logistics - The Mongol logistical system was distinguished by its mobility and practicality. Most columns or toumen were self-suficient in the short run. The Mongol armies lived off the land heavily, bad news indeed for hapless civilians in their path. Heavier equipment was brought up by well-organized supply trains. Local lumber, labor and other resources were pressed into service to feed the needs of the advancing toumen. Primarily a cavalry force, the Mongols made wide use of captured or hired siege engineers to overcome fortifications. A supply train hauled a variety of siege engines in the wake of the touman sweep, and these were deployed against cities. The Mongols were unsentimental and used every trick in the book, from sapper tunnels to treachery. Once a city had fallen, it was subjected to wholesale massacre and pillaging. Cities that surrendered had an easier time, but regardless of how the city or area submitted, certain outcomes were still the same. The Mongol era is filled with supply trains hauling booty to their core homeland in the steppes. Mongol terror - Mongol terror and atrocity was notable even for the 13th century. They employed a deliberate policy of terror. It was not unusual for them to round up the civilian population of a city or area, and drive the hapless victims forward as human herd against an opponent, who faced the anguished choice of firing upon or killing their own people, Contemporary accounts speak of mass mountains of human bones, or of vast areas burned to rubble, devoid of all life. Long before Imperial Japan used the phrase, Mongol operations in many areas could indeed be classified as a "Three All" policy- "burn all, kill all, destroy all." And yet such terror at times also had a rational end in sight -- to intimidate opponents further down the line into surrendering or making concessions. In a cruel age, where few nations or tribes won prizes for humane behavior, the Mongols seemed to have added their own distinct stamp. Defeat of the Mongols Undefeated in most encounters, Mongols operations under Genghis Khan and his later successors stretched from Asia, to Central Europe, to Russia, to India to the Middle East. What then stopped the Asiatic horsemen from conquering the land surface of the earth? The tribal structure for one was a relative fragile one, held together initially by Genghis Khan's ruthless will. On his death, the empire became divided. Such division arguably saved the people of Europe, for Mongol victories penetrated as far as Poland and Hungary could have gone much further. Succession disputes and deliberations however caused the fierce horsemen to withdraw from Central Europe. Russia received no such reprieve, nor did China, nor parts of the Middle East, but they met their fates separately under varying circumstances. Over time, some conquered peoples were able to dilute, absorb or blunt Mongol advances. China is the most famous example, with the powerful Chinese culture eventually absorbing and "turning" the rough horsemen. Another factor was that success bred division, so that in time, like the Vikings, Mongol came to fight Mongol over the spoils of victory. Some Mongolian historians consider that Tibetan Buddhism that was introduced to Mongolia in the 17th century played some role to blunt powerful Mongols. The Mongols also were never really tested for an extended time on terrain unsuitable to mass cavalry sweeps, nor were they noted for exploits in the naval arena. These twin factors would have been hindrances in further expansion, although as noted above, they were supremely adaptable. They conquered Afghanistan's main routes and cities with ease but the bulk of the country with its forbidding terrain, bane of invaders everywhere, was not pacified. The Mongols also met defeat in Japan, failing to project their power over a large body of water, and maintain a foothold on a hostile shore. Whether they would have had the same world-beating success if they had pushed into the forests and swamps beyond Poland or Hungary is open to question. Mongol manpower also was not unlimited. The steppe economy was supremely proficient in producing tough archers and their ponies. But the farther away they moved from that area, the greater the drain on their manpower. Although shrewd and adaptable, such manpower problems would loom large in any putative program of world conquest. Finally the shrinkage of the steppes by the encroachment of agricultural peoples helped reduce the economic base that had produced so many ponies and fighting men. The final straw was the gunpowder age, which put paid to the run of success enjoyed by the mounted warrior, not only in Asia but elsewhere as well. Timeline of conquest The Mongols attempted two unsuccessful invasions of Japan (see Mongol Invasions Of Japan ). The first attempt ended in a retreat after the Battle Of Bun'ei in 1274 . The second attempt was cancelled after many ships had been destroyed by a famous Typhoon , called Kamikaze (divine wind) in 1281 . The Mongols succeeded very briefly in their invasion of Dai Viet in the northern part of contemporary Vietnam , but were soon defeated by the Vietnamese general Tran Hung Dao after almost three decades. The attack on the Javanese kingdom of Singhasari in 1293 caused the collapse of that state, but the new empire of Majapahit remained independent. Estimated fatalities from the Mongol campaigns are:
Modern history . The red areas show areas dominated by ethnic Mongols today. The small area in southwest Russia represents the Kalmyk Mongols.]] In 1911 , Mongolia revolted against Manchu rule with Russia n support, forming modern Mongolia . A Communist government was formed in 1921 . The USSR defended Mongolia from Japan ese invasion. However, the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party , for reasons both practical and philosophical, enacted an often brutal if not entirely effective sweeping aside Mongolian tradition, working against the Buddhist religions, clan-ism, and script, and for collectivism (as opposed to the traditional nomadic lifestyle). Mongolia aligned itself with Russia after the Sino-Soviet Split of 1958 . In 1990 the Communist government was overthrown, and by 1992 Mongolia established a Parliamentary government. Inner Mongolia is an autonomous region within China. Han Chinese have been massively re-settled there, and are the dominant ethnic group. China places many of the same cultural restrictions on Inner Mongolians. However, Inner Mongolians are exempt from the government's One-child Policy , and the PRC officially promotes the Mongol Language . In the past fifty years, there has been an increase in Mongolian immigration to the United States. Large communities have sprouted in New Jersey , Illinois , Virginia and Southern California . The Russian Federation also has some autonomous regions for descendants of the Mongols, such as the Buryat s:
See also References
External links |