Information AboutMesopotamia |
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Introduction Ancient Mesopotamia was considered one of the first civilizations throughout history. The name Mesopotamia means: “the land between two rivers”, between Tigris and Euphrates. This was very important for the ability of settling down, growing crops, and not having to depend on hunting. The development of writing was also very important, for it saved many things we know about ancient Mesopotamia today. In the beginning, Mesopotamia consisted of many small city-states, which later on started to grow into empires. These empires grew by having wars with their neighboring states. In this process, many empires collapsed, fell apart or were conquered by other empires. In this project you will find out importance of people living thousands of years ago, developing new and better ways to live. These people were the starts of what we are today. History Mesopotamia was settled and conquered by numerous ancient civilizations. It is very important to remember that the dates for events in ancient Mesopotamia are still controversial, and several different methods and standards of dating exist, therefore, dates contained herein are only estimates. Mesopotamia has been home to some of the oldest major ancient civilizations, including the Sumerians , Akkadians , Persians , Babylonians , and Assyrians . The Sumerians are generally regarded as the first group of people in Mesopotamia, although scholars dispute when they might have arrived. The Fertile Crescent was inhabited with several distinct, flourishing cultures between the end of the last ice age (c. 10,000 BC) and around 5000 BC. These include the Ubaid culture and the Sarmatian culture near today's Iranian border. Generally, complex societies began developing around 6000 BC; still, by that time Jericho was already a bustling city complete with irrigation techniques. It is hard to tell where the Sumerians might have come from because the language Sumerian is unrelated to any other known language. Their mythology includes many references to the surrounding area but little clue regarding their place of origin. The Sumerian language is identifiable from the period of 3200-2900 onward. The Sumerians are also the first formal astronomers known throughout history. They were considered to have thought that there were 10 planets. In the mid-4th throughout the 3rd millenniums BC, various city-states gained increased power at various times. Eridu , Uruk , Ur , Lagash , and Girsu were all important urban centers. Especially in the 4th millennium, Uruk was one of the most important centers in the region. It is during this period that Uruk and some other urban centers started experimenting with writing, invented the wheel, and stepped up metal production and stonework. According to mythology, Uruk was said to have been home to Gilgamesh , the most famous of Mesopotamian heroes. When of the 3rd millennium, these urban centers had developed into increasingly complex societies. Irrigation and other means of exploiting food sources are being used to amass surpluses of food, huge building projects are being undertaken by rulers, and political organization is becoming evermore sophisticated. In the middle of the 3rd millennium, King Sargon established the Dynasty of Agade (sometimes called Akkad ) in Mesopotamia. It was the first time, the entire area was united under centralized rule. The Akkadians were a Semitic people; the first tangible documentation of Akkadian language comes from c. 2300 BC. Sumerian was retained as an important language for administrative and literary purposes, but otherwise Akkadian dominated the scene. The Dynasty continued until around c. 2000, and included such famous rulers as Naram-Sin . After the rule of the Dynasty ended, various city-states vied for power. Simultaneously, a people called the Gutians invaded from the Zagros Mountains and took over for a short period. Power over the area finally went to the city-state of Ur, when the Third Dynasty Of Ur (Ur III) was founded. State control over industry reached a level never again seen in the region. Famous Ur III rulers include Ur-Nammu , and Shulgi , who devised one of the earliest known law codes (in the spirit of the later, more famous, Hammurabi ). The Hurrians were a people who settled in northern Mesopotamia circa 1600 BC South-East of Turkey and by circa 1450 BC established a medium-sized empire called Mitanni East, North And West, And Temporarily Made Tributary [[vassals out of kings in the west, and making them a major threat for the Pharaoh . By 1300 BC they had been reduced to their homeland and the status of vassal of the Hatti (the Hittites ), a western Indo-European people (belonging to the linguistic "kentum" group) who dominated most of Asia Minor In Modern [[Turkey from their capital of Hattusa and threatened Egypt even more. Meanwhile, the Kassites established a strong realm, Sangar, in southern Mesopotamia, with Babylon as its capital, not touched by Mitanni or Hittites. But, Assyria and the Elamites threatened or invaded them.
Later history
Education Development of Writing The first ways of writing that were developed were pictograms. These were pictures on tablets that told stories, history and other important happenings. Later they started to develop different signs for different letters, which they called cuneiform writing. This new way of writing spread fast, and was used more than pictograms. They carved their letters into clay, which stored all their writings throughout history. Mathematics, Medicine and Astronomy The Mesopotamians had two number systems, one with 10, and the other with 60. The Sumerians were the first people to count time in sixty minute hours, and they created a calendar with 7 days in a week. The Babylonian astronomers were very interested in studying the stars and sky, and most could already predict eclipses and solstices. People thought that everything had some purpose in astronomy. Most of these related to religion and omens. The doctors in Mesopotamian did not know much about medicine and the human body, but they observed their illnesses. From these observations, hundreds of years later modern medicine was created. Eclipses In ancient Mesopotamia eclipses were considered as bad omens, but only the ones that were seen counted. However if an eclipse was not seen in the royal city, it meant that the omen was nothing to do with the king or his country. Constellations Constellations that we still use, such as Leo, Taurus, Scorpius, Auriga, Gemini, Capricorn and Sagittarius were invented by the Sumerian and Babylonian astronomers. But besides beliefs, the constellations were useful for Mesopotamian people, to know when to harvest their crops, planting and even to calculate time. Gods and goddesses Mesopotamian religion is the oldest religion that we have records of. They believed that the world was a flat disc, which was surrounded by a huge, holed space, and above that heaven. They also believed that water was everywhere, the top, bottom and sides, and that the universe was born from this enormous sea. People also believed in many gods. Although the beliefs above were common in whole Mesopotamia, different parts of the land had different beliefs. The Sumerian word for universe is an-ki, which refers to the god An and the goddess Ki. Their son was Enlil, the air god. It was believed that he was the most powerful god. He was their main god, as the Greeks had Zeus, and the Romans had Jupiter. The Sumerians also had many questions with no answers, such as: Who are we?, Where are we?, How did we get here?. They tried answering these questions, by explanations of their gods. If someone was sick they prayed to the gods, so that they would recover. As mentioned before, the Mesopotamian doctors were not very good in medication, so instead people asked help from the gods. Gods
Demons The belief in demons was also a large part of ancient Mesopotamian religion. People were afraid of bad souls, like demons, so they set up many statues and painted pictures to scare away these unwanted ghosts. As gods, there were different demons, with their own names, who did different types of evil things. Burials Archeologists found hundreds of graves in some parts of Mesopotamia. These graves told us many things about Mesopotamian burial habits. In the city of Ur, most people were buried into family graves under their houses. Children were put into big jars, and were taken into the family chapel. Other people were just buried into common city graveyards. Some people were wrapped into mats and carpets. In most graves some belongings of the people were with them, but there were 17 graves with very precious objects in them, and it is assumed that these were royal graves. Ziggurats Ziggurats were huge temples built to worship the Gods. They were built from clay and mud, with three or four parts. They very high, so that at times of flood they would stay dry. Many workers were required when a ziggurat was put together. There had to be enough people to dig clay, to make bricks, to carry bricks and to put together these bricks, to create a ziggurat. Amusement Music Music was a large part of Mesopotamian amusement life. Kings listened to it, and some music was written for the gods. Although music was a high amusement for kings and rulers; it was also amusement for ordinary people. They liked to sing, dance in their homes or just in the marketplaces. Some songs were sung to their children, who passed it on to their children. Most of these songs were about important happenings, which were passed on through many generations, until someone wrote them down. These were highly important for history to pass on to us. Games Games were also much of amusement, especially for royalties. The other people did not have any games, or did not have time for them. A beautiful board game was found in one of the royal graves of Ur. Nobody knows for sure how to play it, because the rules were not found. There are only suggestions of playing it. How Did the People Live? Family life Life was very hard for ordinary people in ancient Mesopotamia, partly, because lots of babies died of cureless diseases. Most boys had to go to work with their fathers, and got their own part of the work. Girls had to stay home with their mothers, to learn how to do the housekeeping, cooking and looking after younger children. Some boy got to go to school from richer families. Women had rights, which was a new thing in history. They could own property, and if she had a good reason, she could get a divorce. Houses The houses of rich people were very big. They had two or three floors, with a roof, (which could also be used as a place to live). They had a large courtyard around the house. In the house there were a few bedrooms, a reception room, a chapel, a kitchen, a lavatory and a tomb under the house. The houses of ordinary people were much simpler, with only a couple of rooms in it. Money Conditions There was a large difference in money and wealth matters between rich and ordinary people. Ordinary people highly depended on their crops, because they had very little money. Rich people had many slaves and usually lots of money. 1 talent = 60 mina = 3600 shekel 30 kg of silver 1 mina = 60 shekel 500 grams silver 1 shekel 8.333 grams silver 1 shekel = 2 divisions 1 shekel = 8 slices 1 shekel = 12 grains 1 shekel = 24 carats 1 shekel = 24 chickpeas 1 shekel = 180 barleycorns Silver coins were not totally pure silver. About 87% was silver. Food/Farming The food in Mesopotamia was quite rich, because of the two rivers, Tigris and Euphrates. Although the land close to the rivers was fertile, and good to grow crops, the center parts were dry and most of the year out of food. That is why the development of irrigation was very important. Irrigation was when people dug and ditches and long tunnels from the rivers to their lands and crops. Another new development was the control of water by dams and the use of aqueducts. People used wooden plows to soften the soil, before planting barley and other crop seeds. They also ate fruits and vegetables, such as onions, grapes, turnips, apples and other eatables that they could grow. They were one of the first people to make beer. They also liked making wine. Farmers knew when to plant their crops, and when to use plows from diaries. Mesopotamia's weather was a disadvantage for farmers, because the weather was always unpredictable. It was not rear that their crops were ruined. So when their crops were ruined, they depended on animals like cows and lambs. These animals were very useful, because they used their milk, meat, skin and even bones. Running the State Kings Most kings in Ancient Mesopotamia were thought to be chosen by a god, a son of a god, or a god himself. They were helping the gods by running the state. Most kings named themselves “king of the universe” or “great king” or another common name was “shepherd”, because he had to look after their people. Nebuchadnezzar was the most powerful king in Babylonia. He was thought to being the son of the god Nabu. He married the daughter of Cyaxeres, so the Median and the Babylonian dynasties were combined. Nebuchadnezzar’s name means: Nabo, protect the crown! Belshedezzar was the last king of Babylonia. He was the son of Nabonidus, whose wife was Nictoris, the daughter of Nebuchadnezzar. The first king of the first dynasty of Ur (at around 2560) was Mesanepada. He made Ur Sumer’s main city. First Dynasty of Ur c. 2563-2387 B.C. 2563-2524: Mesannepadda 2523-2484: A'annepadda 2483-2448: Meskiagnunna 2447-2423: Elulu 2422-2387: Balulu Dynasty of Lagash c. 2494-2342 B.C. 2494-2465: Ur-Nanshe 2464-2455: Akurgal 2454-2425: Ennatum 2424-2405: Enannatum I 2402-2375: Entemena 2374-2365: Enannatum II 2364-2359: Enentarzi 2358-2352: Lugal-anda 2351-2342: Uru-inim-gina Dynasty of Uruk c. 2340-2316 B.C. 2340-2316: Lugal-zaggesi Dynasty of Akkad c. 2334-2154 B.C. 2334-2279: Sargon 2278-2270: Rimush Power When Assyria grew into an empire, it was divided into smaller parts, called provinces. Each of these were named after their main cities, like Nivenah, Samaria, Damascus and Arpad. They all had their own governor, who had to make sure everyone paid their taxes; he had to call up soldiers to war, and supply workers when a temple was built. He was also responsible, that the laws were respected. In this way it was easier to keep control of an empire such as Assyria. Although Babylon was quite a small state in the Sumerian, it grew tremendously throughout the time of Hammurabi’s rule. He was known as “the law maker”, and soon Babylon became one of the main cities in Mesopotamia. It was later called Babylonia, which meant, the gateway of the gods. It also became one of the greatest centers of learning. Warfare The state of Mesopotamia had many wars, amongst each other for land and power. They also fought for the rivers’ control, transportation, irrigation, and for places they could get timber, stone and metal. When empires were created, they went to war more with foreign countries. King Sargon, for example conquered all the cities of Sumer, some cities in Mari, and then went to war with northern Syria. Many Babylonian palace walls were decorated with the pictures of the successful fights and the enemy, whether desperately escaping, or hiding amongst reeds. A king in Sumer, Gilgamesh, was thought two-thirds god and only one third human. There were legendary stories and poems about him, which were passed on for many generations, because he had many adventures that were believed very important. Laws King Hammurabi, as mentioned above was famous for his laws. He had about three hundred laws, which were quite strict. Some of these are: If one accuses another, but cannot prove it, the accuser will be killed. If one accuses another, and can prove it, he shall be rewarded with money. If a judge would decide in a case, and later it would turn out that he was wrong, he will have to pay twelve times as much as he set for the accused, and will never be allowed to judge anymore. If one steals the son of another, he will be killed. If one finds a slave, who has run away, and he will bring the slave back to his owner, the owner will pay two shekels. If a robber is caught while stealing, he will be killed. If one does not take good enough care of a dam, and the dam breaks, he shall be sold for money, which will replace the ruined corn, of the over flooding of the crops. If one over floods a neighbor’s crops, then he shall pay the loss. If one gives his garden to take care of to a gardener, and the gardener did his job well for four years, on the fifth year the owner will have to rake part in the gardening. If the gardener did not do his job well, and the plants go bad, he shall pay the loss of the bad years according to the neighbors plant product. If one is in dept, and cannot pay, he can sell himself, his wife, his son and his daughter to work, after three years they shall be set free. If the one in dept sells a slave to the one to pay for, and the slave is good enough, there can be no objection. If one marries a woman, but has no relationship with her, it is not considered as a marriage. If a wife has a relationship with another man, both shall be tied and throne into water, but the wife can be pardoned by her husband and given to the king as a slave. If a man uses violence on another man’s wife to sleep with her, the man shall be killed, but the wife shall be blameless. If a man is captured in war, and the wife leaves the house, even though there is enough food, she shall be throne into water. If a man is captured in war, and there is no food, the wife is blameless if she leaves the house. If a husband would run away from home, and the wife goes to another house; if the husband returns, the wife does not have to go back. If a man wants to separate from a woman, who has given birth to his children, a part of land and money has to be given to her by the husband. When the children grow up, the wife can remarry. If a man wants to separate from a woman, with no children, he shall have to give back her dowry and the money she has brought from her father’s house. If a man would adopt a son and he would grow up in the adopter’s house, the original parents could not demand his return. If anyone strikes a man whose rank is higher than his, the man shall be whipped sixty times, with an ox-whip in public. If someone strikes another man equal ranked, he shall pay one gold mina. If a slave would strike a free man, his ear will be cut off. If a man strikes a pregnant woman, and she therefore loses her child, he shall pay ten shekels for her. If a builder builds a house, and constructs it well, the owner will pay two shekels for each surface of the house. If however he does not succeed, and the house will fall in, the owner die, the builder will be killed. If the son of the owner dies, the son of the builder shall be killed. Royal Places The Palace The palaces of the kings in Mesopotamia were huge building, which were beautifully decorated. Most walls had pictures carved into ivory, about great victories of the Mesopotamians. They also had large sculptures at entrances, to protect the king from demons and other evil spirits. Most furniture was also made from ivory, because it was easy to decorate and carve into shape. Their palaces contained large amount of metals as well. Bronze and gold was used the most for decorations on the walls, the rooms, the sculptures and the throne. Palaces were also the main centers of the government. Royal Libraries and Museums King Ashurbanipal decided to create a library in Nivenah at about 750 B.C. All temples in Babylonia had libraries, so he sent his scribes to collect tablets that were interesting. If the priest would not want to give away a tablet, the scribes had to make a copy. Soon the royal library in Nivenah was the largest one. Many tablets were kept in such good shape, that most of what we know about ancient Mesopotamia today comes from those tablets. The Babylonian king, Nebuchadnezzar II founded a museum, where were important statues, objects and some tablets. Science and Technology Mesopotamian people developed all kinds of technologies, like metalwork, glassmaking, textiles, food control, water storage and irrigation. They were also one of the first people in history to start to use metal. Their major metals were: copper, bronze and gold. Kings used hundreds of kilograms of these very expensive materials to build their beautiful castles. People also used copper and bronze for different weapons, like swords, daggers spears, and armor. They also made these weapons from gold, but these they mostly used only for decoration. Tigris and Euphrates The two rivers surrounding ancient Mesopotamia were the Tigris and Euphrates. These two rivers made the dry land fertile. Most ordinary people were quite poor and so these two rivers were very important for them. Rainfall was very small per year, so the two rivers was their only water supply. People had to irrigate their lands; otherwise their crops would dry out. But they also had to control the water with dams, to collect the water. There were quite many wars, because if a dam was put down somewhere higher up, the water did not go further down. This caused a problem for the lower cities. Travel Most people in Mesopotamia traveled by water rather than by foot, because it was mush more convenient. They made boats from reeds, and it was easy to get through swampy areas too. Later, when the use of wheels was invented, chariots were used, especially rich people, to look around the city with the pull of couple of horses. Most people did not like to walk, but some could not afford to pay a bout, and definitely not a chariot. List of links These civilizations arose from earlier settlements and cultures which were among the first to make use of Agriculture .
Early cities in this region include:
Further reading
A Companion to the Ancient Middle East, edited by Daniel Snell (Malden 2004) |