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English name= Joseph Smith| image= | birth_name= Joseph Smith, Jr.| birth_date= December 23 , 1805 | birthplace= Sharon, Vermont | prophet_date= Spring , 1820 | founder_date= April 6 , 1830 | president_date= January 25 , 1832 | predecessor= Founder| successor=see Succession Crisis | dead=dead|death_date= June 27 , 1844 | deathplace= Carthage, Illinois |}} Joseph Smith, Jr. ( December 23 , 1805 – June 27 , 1844 ) was an American Religious leader who founded the Latter Day Saint Movement ,
a Restorationist belief commonly known as Mormonism . Adherents to for a list). Smith's followers ) {Link without Title} . Smith taught doctrines that were considered Heretical by mainstream Christians (see Mormonism And Christianity ), especially regarding the Godhead , an Apostasy in which much of the pure doctrine of Christianity was lost and the Authority to perform ordinances such as Baptism was taken from the earth, that many "plain and precious truths" were missing from the Bible , Polygamy , Degrees Of Glory , Deification , and his own prophetic calling in which capacity he received revelations from God and was visited occasionally by Angelic messengers. Early life, family, and religious experiences See Also: Early life of Joseph Smith, Jr. Joseph Smith was born in Sharon, Vermont (what is today South Royalton ), the fifth child of Joseph Smith, Sr. and Lucy Mack Smith . After attempting to establish roots in various towns in Vermont , but being forced out by three successive years of crop failures, the Smith family settled in western New York , and began working a farm just outside the border of the Town Of Palmyra . At Palmyra, Joseph Smith, Sr., opened a "cake and beer shop," selling gingerbread, pies, boiled eggs, Root Beer and other similar products . Palmyra was part of the so-called " Burned-over District " during the Second Great Awakening . The monicker arises from so many people who "got on fire" with the Spirit. The excitement within the community caused many to contemplate religion. Although the young Joseph Smith was drawn somewhat towards the Methodist sect, he did not identify fully with any religious movement. He wrote: "...it was impossible for a person young as I was, and so unacquainted with men and things, to come to any certain conclusion who was right and who was wrong." {Link without Title} . , Joseph's first wife, whom he married in 1827.]] In the spring of 1820, at fourteen years old, Smith was studying the Bible when he came across James 1:5, which reads, "If any man lacks wisdom, let him ask of God, who giveth to all men liberally, and upbraideth not, and it shall be given him."After considering this verse, Smith resolved to pray vocally in a wooded area near his home. {Link without Title} Smith claimed that he had a . In 1823, when Smith was seventeen, his family reported that he described being visited by a heavenly messenger named Moroni . According to Smith, Moroni reported that "there was a book deposited, written upon Gold Plates , giving an account of the former inhabitants of this continent, and the source from whence they sprang. He {Link without Title} also said that the fulness of the everlasting Gospel was contained in it, as delivered by the Savior to the ancient inhabitants; "Also, that there were two stones in silver bows—and these stones, fastened to a breastplate, constituted what is called the AD, and had been charged with their protection. By carefully following the messenger's instructions, Smith claimed he would eventually be able to retrieve the gold plates. Smith reported that he was not allowed to receive the plates until 1827 . In the meantime, with his father and brothers, he was said to participate in a number of precious-ore mining operations for which later critics alleged him to be a treasure-seeker. While engaged in these mostly gold- and silver-pursuing activities in New York and Pennsylvania , he met and became engaged to his future wife, Emma Hale . Emma's father, a participant in one mining venture, disapproved of Smith. However, the couple eloped in early 1827 . After their marriage, the couple returned to Palmyra and moved in with Smith's parents. It had been four years since Smith's account of the first visit from the angel Moroni and his message concerning the gold plates. During these years, Smith described additional, periodic visits with the angel until finally, in September 1827, Smith indicated that Moroni allowed him to take the gold plates but strictly forbade him from initially showing them to any person without authorization. Three of Smith's associates, Oliver Cowdery, David Whitmer, and Martin Harris (referred to in Mormonism as the " Three Witnesses ") stated they had seen the plates in an Angelic Vision ; and later eight other associates of Smith (the " Eight Witnesses ") stated that God had allowed them to see and handle the plates. None of these witnesses ever denied the testimony that they had given regarding the actual existence of the gold plate and the three original witnesses also never denied that an angel of God had shown them the plates. 1827 to 1831 See Also: Life of Joseph Smith, Jr. from 1827 to 1831 Soon after Smith indicated he had received the Golden Plates , his focus turned to producing what he described as a translation of the engravings on the plates. With the financial and moral support of a wealthy Palmyra landowner named Martin Harris , Smith set off with Emma to Harmony, Pennsylvania to live near Emma's family. According to his wife's account, once in Harmony he began transcribing characters engraved on the plates and attempted to translate some of them by looking into the Urim And Thummim . Harris came to Harmony in February 1828 to act as Smith's scribe (Roberts 1902, p. 19). By the middle of June 1828, Smith had dictated about 116 Manuscript Pages of text (Roberts 1902, p. 20), (Smith et al. 1835, sec. 36, v. 41)). Harris, however, who was having marital problems at the time, convinced Smith to allow him to take the manuscript pages home to Palmyra to show his skeptical wife. Smith's diary records that he repeatedly prayed to ask for permission from God to loan the manuscript to Harris, and after many rejections, was finally granted permission. At about the same time, Emma gave birth to the young couple's first child (Smith 1853, p. 118), but the boy was stillborn (Howe 1834, p. 269). By the time Smith was able to inquire about the manuscript pages, Harris informed Smith that they had been lost. Some assert that Harris's wife hid or destroyed the manuscript to test the veracity of Smith's claims while others believe that the manuscript was obtained and altered by a group conspiring to disprove Smith [http://scriptures.lds.org/dc/10/8-19/#8 . The ultimate fate of the pages is not known. Smith indicated that he was devastated by the loss of these first records. Smith returned to , returning them later that year on September 22 , 1828 . He was then allowed to continue translating the plates but was commanded to find a new scribe and to continue where he left off, without retranslating the pages that were lost. Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints believe that those pages are scripture that has not yet been revealed to men. Critics of the Church regard this as a ruse to hide the fact that Smith authored the Book Of Mormon , rather than translated it from ancient records (see Book Of Mormon#Authorship ). On April 7 , 1829 , Smith was joined in Harmony by a new scribe, Oliver Cowdery (Cowdery 1834, p. 14), who acted as Smith's scribe for the majority of Smith's dictation. According to Cowdery and Smith, on May 15 , 1829 , John The Baptist appeared and ordained them to the Aaronic Priesthood . Upon receiving this priesthood they Baptized each other immediately thereafter in accordance with their understanding of this priesthood authority. Cowdery and Smith also recount that Peter , James , and John came to them during either May or June 1829 and Ordained them to the Melchizedek Priesthood . Joseph Smith taught that the authority found in these priesthoods was necessary for the work of the Lord in preparing a people to receive Him at the Second Coming and that this authority could only be recieved by the "laying on of hands" by someone who held that authority. Since this authority had been taken from the earth after the murder and persecution of the early apostles these same men returned as glorified, resurrected beings or angels and restored this priesthood authority to the earth. When the dictation was complete, Smith published the work as the '' Book Of Mormon '', on March 26 , 1830 . In recent years, the subtitle ''Another Testament of Jesus Christ'' was added. On April 6 , 1830 , Smith founded the first Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints Latter Day Saint church, and soon organized three branches in the surrounding area of New York . His mother, father, brothers and sisters were early converts to the new religion and staunch believers in Joseph as a modern day prophet. 1831 to 1844 See Also: Life of Joseph Smith, Jr. from 1831 to 1844 Life in Kirtland, Ohio To avoid conflict and persecution encountered in New York and Pennsylvania , Smith and Emma moved to Kirtland, Ohio early in 1831. They lived with Isaac Morley 's family while a house was built for them on the Morley farm. Many of Smith's followers and associates settled in Kirtland and in Jackson County, Missouri , where Smith said he was instructed by revelation to build Zion . In Kirtland the church's first , Moses , Elijah , Elias , and numerous Angel s; Speaking And Singing In Tongues , often with translations; Prophesy ing; and other Spiritual Experience s. Some Mormons believed erroneously that Jesus' Millennial Reign had begun. According to recorded accounts of the event, the mob broke down the door in the home took Smith's oldest surviving adopted child from his arms , dragged Smith from the room, leaving his exposed child on a trundle bed and forcing Emma and the others from the house, the mob threatening her with rape and murder . The child was knocked off the bed onto the floor in the doorway of the home as Smith was forcibly removed from his home . The child died from exposure (some accounts say pneumonia) five days after the event from the condition that doctors said he developed the night of the mob violence. . After having his wounds tended all night and into the early morning, Smith preached a sermon on Forgiveness the following day. Though some reports state that members of the mob that had attacked him were present at this sermon, Smith did not mention the attack directly. The critical historian Fawn Brodie (No Man Knows, 119) speculated that one of John Johnson 's sons, Eli, meant to punish Joseph by having him castrated for an intimacy with his sister, Nancy Marinda Johnson, but author Bushman states that hypothesis failed. He feels a more probable motivation is recorded by Symonds Ryder, a participant in the event, who felt Smith was plotting to take property from members of the community and a company of citizens violently warned Smith that they would not accept those actions. Rigdon suffered a severe concussion after being dragged on the ground. According to some accounts, Rigdon was delirious for several days. The reasons for this attack are disputed. Smith may have begun practicing a form of Polygyny , later called Plural Marriage, perhaps as early as 1833. Polygamy (marriage to multiple partners) was illegal in many U.S. States, and was widely perceived as an immoral and misguided practice. Many of those that practiced polygamy pointed to the prophets in the Bible who also had multiple wives including Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. (''See also Joseph Smith, Jr. And Polygamy and Life Of Joseph Smith, Jr. From 1831 To 1844#Plural Marriage for more information.'') However, Smith is on record as having spoken against polygamy and claiming his innocence of these charges. Smith continued to deny practicing polygamy until his death. {Link without Title} Critics cite this as a deliberate deception by Joseph Smith. On January 12 , 1838 Smith and Rigdon left Kirtland for Far West in Caldwell County, Missouri , in Smith's words, "to escape mob violence, which was about to burst upon us under the color of legal process to cover the hellish designs of our enemies." Just prior to their departure, many Latter Day Saints (including prominent leaders) became disaffected in the wake of the Kirtland Safety Society debacle, in which Smith and several of Smith's associates were accused of various illegal or unethical Banking actions when the aforementioned bank, presided by Smith, collapsed during a nation-wide banking crisis. Later research has found that Smith was not responsible for the bank collapse. Most of the remaining church members left Kirtland for Missouri . Life in Missouri Smith reported early revelations that identified western . Smith first visited Independence in the summer of 1831, and a site was dedicated for the construction of the temple. Soon afterward, Mormon converts—most of them from the New England area—began immigrating in large numbers to Independence and the surrounding area. The Missouri period was marked by many instances of violent conflict and legal difficulties for Smith and his followers. Many factors contributed to deep suspicion, harassment, and eventually violence by both sides:
All of these things caused many local leaders and residents to see the Latter Day Saint community as a threat to their safety. The Latter Day Saints had been migrating to Missouri ever since Smith had claimed the area to be Zion. They simultaneously occupyed the Kirtland area, as well as the Independence area for around seven years. After Smith had been forced out of Kirtland in 1838, he, and the rest of the remaining Latter Day Saints from Kirtland, came to Missouri. Later that year, many of the "old Missourians" and the LDS settlers began and engaged in an ongoing conflict often referred to as the Mormon War . One key skirmish was the Battle Of Crooked River , which involved Missouri state troops and a group of Latter Day Saints. There is some debate as to whether the Mormons knew their opponents were government officials. This battle led to reports of a "Mormon insurrection". In consequence of these reports, including sworn affadavits by ex-Mormons that the Mormons were planning to burn both Liberty and Richmond, Missouri, Missouri Governor Lilburn Boggs issued an executive order known as the " Extermination Order " on 27 October 1838 , stating that the Mormon community had "made war upon the people of this State" and that "the Mormons must be treated as enemies, and must be exterminated or driven from the State if necessary for the public peace" 1Boggs, Extermination Order The Extermination Order was not officially rescinded until 1976 by Governor Christopher S. Bond . Soon after the "Extermination Order" was issued, vigilantes attacked an outlying Mormon settlement and killed seventeen people; an event that was later identified as the Haun's Mill Massacre . Soon afterward, the 2,500 troops from the state Militia converged on the Mormon headquarters at Far West . Smith and several other Church leaders surrendered to state authorities on charges of Treason . The militia leader threatened to have them court marshalled and immediately executed. They were held at Liberty Jail for several months awaiting a trial that never came. They were later transferred to a jail in Columbia, Missouri, from which they escaped by bribing the guards with liquor and money. Until his death six years later, Smith would remain a fugitive from justice. The legality of Boggs' "Extermination Order" was debated in the Legislature , but its objectives were achieved. Most of the Mormon community in Missouri had either left or been forced out by the spring of 1839 . Life in Nauvoo, Illinois After leaving Missouri in 1839, Smith and his followers made headquarters in a town called , and Nauvoo was quickly built up by the faithful, including many new arrivals. In October 1839, Smith and others left for Washington, D.C. to meet with Martin Van Buren , then the President Of The United States . Smith and his delegation sought redress for the persecution and loss of property suffered by the Latter Day Saints in Missouri. Van Buren told Smith, "Your cause is just, but I can do nothing for you." Work on a Temple In Nauvoo began in the autumn of 1840. The cornerstones were laid during a conference on April 6 , 1841 . Construction took five years and the edifice was dedicated on May 1 , 1846 ; about four months after Nauvoo was abandoned by the majority of its citizens under threats of mob action. In March 1842 , Smith was initiated as a Freemason (as an Entered Apprentice Mason on March 15 , and Master Mason the next day—the usual month wait between degrees was waived by the Illinois Lodge Grandmaster, Abraham Jonas ) at the Nauvoo Lodge, one of less than a half-dozen Masonic meetings he attended. He was introduced by John C. Bennett , a Mason from the northeast. Nauvoo's population peaked in 1845 when it may have had as many as 12,000 inhabitants (and several nearly as large suburbs) — rivaling Chicago, Illinois , whose 1845 population was about 15,000, and its suburbs. , first wife of Apostle George A. Smith .]] Due to Increasing Tensions , critics suggested that Nauvoo's charter should be revoked, and the Illinois legislature considered the notion. In response, Smith petitioned the U.S. Congress to make Nauvoo a territory. His petition was declined. In February, 1844, Smith announced his candidacy for President Of The United States , with Sidney Rigdon as his Vice-presidential running mate. During this period, it is claimed that Smith was "sealed" to several women. Sealing is the temple ordinance whereby a family unit, including parents, children and grandparents, is allowed to continue throughout eternity as opposed to a "til death do you part" common marriage ceremony. Many of the early members of the church believed this doctrine and if they did not have parents who could be sealed to them then they would be sealed to the prophet or president of the church. Many women were also "sealed" to him after his death. Some people claim that Smith fathered children with some of these women but there is no evidence that he did. Mormons believe that these children were not Smith's children, but children that his wives bore by their first husbands, often non-mormons, to whom they also remained married civilly. They beleive that these "sealings" were of a spiritual and not a physical nature. There is no evidence that Smith co-habitated with any of these women and DNA investigations have failed to reveal any of Smith's offspring except through children by his first wife, Emma, thus apparently corroborating this belief. Smith's death See Also: Death of Joseph Smith, Jr. Several of Smith's disaffected associates at Nauvoo , Hancock County, Illinois joined together to publish a newspaper called the '' Nauvoo Expositor ''. Its first and only issue was published 7 June 1844 . The paper was highly critical of Smith, expounding the beliefs that he had become a fallen prophet, held too much power as both mayor of Nauvoo and President of the Church, and that he was corrupting women through the practice of plural marriage. It also outlined several grievances, including the numerous court actions against Smith and his followers for false imprisonment and violation of rights. The publication of this material disturbed many of Nauvoo's citizens, and the , 1844 which was legal according to the city charter but illegal according to state law to do without Court decision. However, Smith followers broke into press building and destroyed the press along with undistributed copies of the newpapers. Because this action was viewed as illegal, many enemies of the fledgling religion accused Smith of violating Freedom Of The Press . Violent threats were made against Smith and the Mormon community. Thomas Sharp , editor of the '' Warsaw Signal '', a newspaper hostile to the Mormons, editorialized: Charges were brought against Smith and he submitted to incarceration in Carthage , the county seat. Smith's brother, Hyrum, and several friends, including John Taylor and Willard Richards , accompanied him to the jail. The Governor of the state, Thomas Ford, had promised protection and a fair trial. He failed to keep either of these promises. Shortly after 5:00 PM on was unharmed. Joseph ran to the open window, where he was shot simultaneously from within and without and uttered his last words were "Oh Lord, my God!" and fell out the window. {Link without Title} Smith's legacy After Smith's death Smith's death created a crisis for the Latter Day Saints. Their charismatic founder was dead and their hierarchy was scattered on missionary efforts and in support of Smith's presidential campaign. Brigham Young recorded in his journal his initial concern after Smith's murder: "The first thing which I thought of was, whether Joseph had taken the keys of the kingdom with him from the earth." Without "the keys of the kingdom", that is, the appropriate Priesthood authority, Young recognized the possibility that, according to the church's doctrine and Smith's own teachings, the church lacked a divinely-sanctioned leader. Because of ongoing tensions, the state legislature revoked Nauvoo's city charter and it was disincorporated. All protection, public services, self-government and other public benefits were revoked. Those who lived in the former City of Nauvoo referred to it as the City of Joseph--He being its founder--after this time, until the city was again granted a charter. Without official defenses, city residents continued to be persecuted by opponents, leading Young to consider other areas for settlement, including Texas , California , Iowa , and the Great Basin region. Succession See Also: Succession crisis (Mormonism) Smith left ambiguous or contradictory succession instructions that led to arguments and disagreements among the church's members and leadership, several of whom claimed rights to leadership. An August 8 1844 conference which established Young's leadership is the source of an oft-repeated legend. Multiple journal and eyewitness accounts from those who followed Young state that when Young spoke regarding the claims of succession by the Quorum Of The Twelve Apostles , he appeared to look or sound like the late Smith. Although many of these accounts were written years after the event, there were contemporary records. Historian D. Michael Quinn wrote: 2 Most Latter Day Saints followed Young, but some aligned with other various people claiming to be Smith's successor. One of these was Smith's own son, Joseph Smith III , who in 1860 led the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, now called the Community Of Christ church. Many of these smaller groups were spread throughout the Midwestern United States , especially in Independence, Missouri . Reverberations of the Succession Crisis continue to the present day. Mob violence and conflict continued to grow and threaten the Mormon establishment at Nauvoo. By 1847, the city was deemed unsafe and Young led many Latter Day Saints out of the United States and into Utah , which was then Mexican territory. Major teachings During his adult life - from the time he established the Church of Christ, the church's first name, in 1830 to his death in 1844 - Smith introduced a large amount of new religious teachings, including efforts to clarify many teachings found in the Bible . In 1842, Joseph summarized the basic beliefs of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in the Wentworth Letter , which contained a series of short doctrinal statements that later became known as the Articles of Faith . Christianity See Also: Christian views of Jesus Joseph Smith taught that Jesus was the Christ and the promised Messiah . He also taught that we must follow the example of Christ, and that mankind should pray and worship in his name. {Link without Title} He taught that Christ performed the Atonement to save all of humanity from Damnation . He began the Atonement in Gethsemane , and went through agony so great that he bled from every pore. D&C 19:18 Nature Of God See Also: Godhead (Mormonism) Joseph Smith taught that God is the Heavenly Father of all mankind and that mankind is made in His express image. Smith taught that God Himself has a physical body like a man and that God loves us and wants mankind to progress to become like him. Joseph taught that Jesus, God's only begotten son in the flesh, is our example to follow. See also his teachings on the nature of God as well as the King Follett Discourse , delivered two months before his death. Immortality, Eternity, and the Purpose of Life Smith taught that all of mankind lived before they were born, and that men live after their physical bodies die. He taught that the reason that mankind is on earth is to progress, and that this life is but a "drop in the bucket," a single step in our eternal progression, and part of the Plan Of Salvation . It is worth mentioning here that in the Psalms, "Wisdom" existed before the earth with the sons of men, and God the Father is referred to in the New Testament as "the Father of Spirits." Smith taught that all mankind, good and bad alike, will be resurrected and become immortal, receiving back their bodies whole. It is a gift from God provided by Jesus' Atonement . However, those who repent and are worthy will receive greater blessings, the greatest of which is Eternal Life, which is to live with God in the Celestial Kingdom . He taught that after the resurrection, "all men will come from the grave as they lie down; whether old or young, there will not be added unto their stature one cubit, neither taken from it." {Link without Title} . Families Joseph taught that families are a central part of God's plan for mankind, and an important part of our growth and progression. He taught that if people live worthily, that their family relationships can last beyond death so that families can be together forever. See also his teachings on family. Because Smith taught the Temple Ordinance of Sealing , The Church Of Jesus Christ Of Latter-day Saints (beginning with Wilford Woodruff ) teaches that it is the divine responsibility of every person to search out their ancestors and do their family history , so that parents can be sealed to children, and families united eternally. This is why they operate the largest genealogical library in the world. The Book of Mormon See Also: Book of Mormon Smith taught that that "the Book of Mormon was the most correct of any book on earth, and the keystone of our religion Mormonism , and a man would get nearer to God by abiding by its precepts, than by any other book." According to the title page of the ''Book of Mormon'', it has a purpose, "Which is to show unto the remnant of the House of Israel what great things the Lord hath done for their fathers; and that they may know the covenants of the Lord, that they are not cast off forever— And also to the convincing of the Jew and Gentile that JESUS is the CHRIST, the ETERNAL GOD, manifesting himself unto all nations." (See also Smith's teachings on The Book of Mormon. ) The Book of Mormon claims to be a record of former inhabitants of the American continent. It said that these people had a knowledge of Jesus Christ, that they had prophets that recorded their own scriptures that testified of Jesus Christ, that they built temples on the American continent similar to the temple in Jerusalem, that they practiced ordinances such as baptism, sacrament, and the laying on of hands for the conferring of the gift of the Holy Ghost (confirmation). The Word Of Wisdom See Also: Word of Wisdom Joseph taught that the Lord revealed to him a code of health designed for Latter-day Saints, in which members of the Church were asked to abstain from tobacco, coffee, tea (except herbal tea), alcoholic beverages, and to eat meat sparingly. In exchange for doing this, members were promised that the Lord would bless them that they "shall receive health in their navel and marrow to their bones; … {Link without Title} shall run and not be weary, and shall walk and not faint." In addition, people were promised that they "shall find wisdom and great treasures of knowledge, even hidden treasures." Compliance with this policy was not immediately considered mandatory though now it is a requirement for entering temples of the LDS Church. See the history of the word of wisdom. Temples See Also: Temple (Mormonism) In 1832, Smith claimed to receive a revelation to build a building that could serve as a "house of God" - namely, a temple. He taught that within these temples, Ordinances could be performed necessary for the Exaltation of mankind. Ordinances could be performed for both the living and the dead (for example, see Baptism For The Dead ). Ordinances in the temple are a stated requirement for entering the Celestial Kingdom. Major prophecies See Also: Prophecies of Joseph Smith Smith's claim to be a prophet of God has led to much controversy. Smith was a polarizing figure in his time, and he continues to be a focus of controversy between his millions of followers, most of whom revere him as a Prophet with the same authority as prophets in the standard Christian canon, and opponents of Mormonism , who believe he was either Delusion al or Fraud ulent. Polygamy Main article: Joseph Smith, Jr. And Polygamy Most historians accept "sealing" records (in many cases notarized) as evidence that Joseph Smith taught and practiced a form of Polygyny that he called "plural marriage." The records are supported by personal journals and diaries maintained by Smith's followers. These sources indicate that, though the doctrine was not widely taught during Smith's life, marriages of this type were performed for select members of the Church as early as the late 1830s. Joseph was married (sealed) to several dozen women, both during his life and by proxy after his death, though the records are incomplete. Evidence suggests that he may have co-habitated only with his first wife, Emma , and she was the only one known with certainty to have bourne his children. However, a small minority of Latter Day Saint followers believe the evidence is not legitimate, and that Joseph Smith did not advocate or practice plural marriage. Though not widespread, the practice of plural marriage continued in early Mormon communities, primarily in today, those who practice any form of polygamy are excommunicated. There are several small splinter groups who still maintain the practice. Notes References
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Author |
Vogel, Dan, ed |
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Vogel |
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Dan |
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Title |
Early Mormon Documents, Vol 1 |
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Signature Books |
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Year |
1996 |
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ID |
ISBN 1-56085-072-8 |
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http://wwwsignaturebookscom/excerpts/doc1htm |
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none |
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