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congregations include many elements of the traditional liturgy in their services, but do not regard ''halakha'' as binding. A distinction is made between individual prayer and communal prayer in a Minyan (quorum). Communal prayer is generally preferable, as it includes components that can not be performed without a quorum. Most of the Jewish liturgy is sung or chanted with traditional melody or trope ( Nigun ). Depending upon the size and platform, many synagogues designate or employ a professional or lay '' Hazzan '' (cantor) for the purpose of leading the congregation in prayer. Daven is the originally exclusively Eastern Yiddish verb meaning "pray"; it is widely used by Ashkenazic Orthodox Jews . In Yinglish , this has become the Anglicise d ''davening''. The origin of the word is obscure, but is thought by some to have come from Middle French and by others to be derived from a Slavic word meaning "give". In Western Yiddish , the term for "pray" is '''oren''', a word with clear roots in Romance Languages — compare Spanish and Portuguese "orar" and Latin " Oratorium ". THE PRAYERS AND THEIR ORIGINS Backgrounds There are three prayer services each day on weekdays. A fourth additional prayer service (called ''mussaf'', "additional"), is added on Shabbat (the Jewish Sabbath ) and on major holidays by Orthodox and Conservative congregations. A fifth prayer (''ne'ilah''), is only recited on Yom Kippur . According to the ( Mishneh Torah , Laws of Prayer 1:1) likewise categorises prayer as a Biblical command, but states that the number of prayers or their times are not. This statement is relied upon by the authorities that hold that women, while being required to pray, only need to pray once a day (preferably in the morning), though they can, if they wish, pray all three daily prayers. The Talmud (tractate Berachoth 26b) gives different reasons why there are three basic prayers. # According to one sage, every one of the the morning, Isaac the afternoon and Jacob the evening prayers. This view is supported with Biblical quotes indicating that the Patriarchs prayed at the time mentioned. # A second opinion states that each was instituted parallel to a sacrificial act in the in the morning for the morning, the afternoon ''Tamid'' for the afternoon prayers and the overnight burning of the leftovers for the evening prayers. Additional Biblical references suggest that : " {Link without Title} his windows being open in his chamber toward Jerusalem, he kneeled upon his knees three times a day, and prayed, and gave thanks before his God, as he had done before" (6:11). Text and language Maimonides (Mishneh Torah, Laws of Prayer 1:4) relates that until the Babylonian exile, all Jews composed their own prayers. After the exile, however, the sages of the time (united in the Great Assembly ) found the ability of the people insufficient to continue the practice, and they composed the main portions of the '' Siddur '', such as the '' Amidah ''. The language of the prayers, while clearly being from the Second Temple period, often employs Biblical idiom, and according to some authorities it should not contain rabbinic or Mishnaic idiom apart from in the sections of Mishnah that are featured (see Baer). Jewish law allows for prayers to be said in any language that the person praying understands. Ashkenazi Orthodox synagogues use almost exclusively Hebrew, and use the local language only for sermons and directions; Conservative synagogues use Hebrew for 75% to 100% of the service (depending on the local custom), and the rest is in the local language. Reform synagogues (usually called Temples in North America) use anywhere from 10% to 50% Hebrew; most of the service is in the local language. Sephardic customs vary, but Ladino or Portuguese may be used in smaller or greater parts of the service even in the most traditional and Orthodox communities. Quorum ''Main article: Minyan '' Individual prayer is considered acceptable, but prayer with a quorum of ten adults (a Minyan ) is considered "prayer with the community", and this is the most highly recommended form of prayer. Judaism has traditionally counted only men in the minyan for formal prayer, on the basis that one does not count someone who is not obligated to participate. Since 1973, many Conservative congregations have begun to count women in the minyan as well, although the determination of whether or not to do so is left to the individual congregation. Those Reform and Reconstructionist congregations that consider a minyan mandatory for communal prayer, count both men and women for a minyan. In Orthodox Judaism , according to some authorities, women can count in the minyan for certain specific prayers, such as the Birchot HaGomel blessing, which both men and women are obligated to say publicly. Concentration Proper concentration (''kavvanah'') is considered essential for prayer. There are only certain portions that are invalid '' A Posteriori '' if they were recited without the required awareness. These are the first line of '' Shema Yisrael '' and the first of the nineteen benedictions of the '' Amidah ''. WEEKDAY PRAYER SERVICES Shacharit: morning prayers ). Reader is wearing tefillin.]] Various prayers are said upon arising; Tzitzit (small garment with fringes) are donned at this time. The Tallit (large prayer shawl) is donned before or during the actual prayer service, as are the Tefillin (phylacteries); both are accompanied by blessings. The service starts with the "morning blessings" (''birkot ha-shachar''), including blessings for the Torah (considered the most important ones). In Orthodox services this is followed by a series of readings from Biblical and rabbinic writings recalling the Offerings made in the Temple In Jerusalem . The section concludes with the "Rabbis' Kaddish " (''kaddish de-rabbanan''). The next section of morning prayers is called ''Pesukei D'Zimrah'' ("verses of praise"), containing several Psalms (100 and 145-150), and prayers (such as ''yehi chevod'') made from a tapestry of Biblical verses, followed by the Song at the Sea (Exodus, chapters 14 and 15). ''Barechu'', the formal public call to prayer, introduces a series of expanded blessings embracing the recitation of the '' Shema ''. This is followed by the core of the prayer service, the '' Amidah '' or ''Shemoneh Esreh'', a series of 19 blessings. The next part of the service, is ''Tachanun'', supplications, which is omitted on days with a festive character (and by Reform services usually entirely). On Mondays and Thursdays a Torah Reading service is inserted. Concluding prayers and Aleinu then follow, with the Kaddish of the mourners generally after Aleinu. Mincha: afternoon prayers m start here.) The ''Ashrei'', containing verses of Psalm s 84, 144, 115 and 141 and the entire Psalm 145, immediately followed by half Kaddish and the ''Shemoneh Esreh'' (''Amidah''). This is followed by a shortened version of ''Tachanun'', supplications, and then the full Kaddish. Sephardim insert Psalm 67 or 93, followed by the Mourner's Kaddish. After this follows, in most modern rites, the '' Aleinu ''. Ashkenazim then conclude with the Mourner's Kaddish. Ma'ariv (or Arvit): evening prayers This service begins with the ''Barechu'', the formal public call to prayer, and an expanded series of prayers relating to the ''Shema Yisrael''. This is followed by the ''Hashkiveinu'' ("Lay us down to sleep, Adonai, our God, in peace, raise us erect, our King, to life, and spread over us the shelter of Your peace.") Ashkenazi m outside of Israel add a series of other blessings, which are made from a tapestry of biblical verses.) This is followed by the Half-Kaddish, and the ''Shemoneh Esreh'' (''Amidah''), bracketed with the full Kaddish. Sephardi m then repeat the ''Barechu'' and say the Mourner's Kaddish before concluding with the Aleinu. Ashkenazi m do not repeat the Barechu, but conclude with ''Aleinu'' followed by the Mourner's Kaddish. In many congregations, the afternoon and evening prayers are recited back-to-back on a working day, to save people having attend synagogue twice. The Vilna Gaon discouraged this practice, and followers of his set of customs commonly wait until after nightfall to recite ''Ma'ariv''. SHABBAT SERVICES Friday night services Shabbat services begin on Friday evening with the weekday Mincha (see above), followed in some communities by the Song Of Songs , and then in most communities by the ''Kabbalat Shabbat'', the mystical prelude to Shabbat services composed by 17th century Kabbalists. This Hebrew term literally means "Receiving the Sabbath". It is, except for amongst many Italkim and Western Sephardi m, composed of six psalms, 95 to 99, and 29, representing the six week-days. Next comes the poem '' Lekha Dodi ''. Composed by Solomon Ha-Levi Alkabetz in the mid- 1500s , it is based on the words of the Talmud ic sage Hanina: "Come, let us go out to meet the Queen Sabbath" (Talmud Shabbat 119a). Kabbalat Shabbat is concluded by ''Psalm 92'' (the recital of which constitutes men's acceptance of the current Shabbat with all its obligations) and ''Psalm 93''. Many add a study section here, including ''Bameh Madlikin'' and ''Amar ribbi El'azar'' and the concluding ''Kaddish deRabbanan'' and is then followed by the Maariv service. The Shema section of the Friday night service varies in some details from the weekday services — mainly in the different ending of the ''Hashkivenu'' prayer and the omission of the ''Barukh A. le'olam'' prayer in those traditions where this section is otherwise recited. In the Italki tradition, there are also different versions of the ''Ma'ariv 'aravim'' prayer (beginning ''asher killah'' on Friday nights) and the ''Ahavat 'olam'' prayer. Most commemorate the Shabbat at this point with ''VeShameru'' (Ex. 31:16,17). The custom to recite the biblical passage at this point has its origins in the Lurianic Kabbalah , and does not appear before the 16th century. It is therefore absent in traditions and prayer books less influenced by the Kabbalah (such as the Yemenite '' Baladi '' tradition), or those that opposed adding additional readings to the siddur based upon the Kabbalah (such the Vilna Gaon ). The Amidah on Shabbat is abbreviated, and is read in full once. This is then followed by the Hazzan 's mini-repetition of the Amidah, ''Magen Avot'', a digest of the seven benedictions. In some Ashkenazi Orthodox synagogues the second chapter of Mishnah tractate Shabbat, ''Bameh Madlikin'', is read at this point, instead of earlier. The service then follows with the Aleinu . Kiddush is recited in the synagogue in Ashkenazi and a few Sephardi communities. Most Sephardi and many Ashkenazi synagogues end with the singing of ''Yigdal'', a poetic adaptation of Maimonides ' 13 principles of Jewish faith. Other Ashkenazi synagogues end with '' Adon `olam '' instead. Saturday morning: Shacharit Shabbat morning prayers commence as on week-days. Of the hymns, Psalm 100 (''Mizmor LeTodah'', the psalm for the Thanksgiving offering), is omitted because the ''todah'' or Thanksgiving Offering could not be offered on Shabbat in the days of the Temple In Jerusalem . Its place is taken in the Ashkenazi tradition by Psalms 19, 34, 90, 91, 135, 136, 33, 92, 93. Sephardi c Jews maintain a different order, add several psalms and two religious poems. The ''Nishmat'' prayer is recited at the end of the ''Pesukei D'Zimrah''. The blessings before ''Shema'' are expanded, and include the hymn ''El Adon'', which is often sung communally. The fourth intermediary benediction of the ''Shacharit Amidah '' begins with ''Yismah Mosheh''. The Torah scroll is taken out of the Ark, and the Weekly Portion is Read , followed by the '' Haftarah ''. After the Torah reading, three prayers for the community are recited. Two prayers starting with ''Yekum Purkan'', composed in Babylon in Aramaic , are similar to the subsequent ''Mi sheberakh'', a blessing for the leaders and patrons of the synagogue. The Sephardim omit much of the Yekum Purkan. Prayers are then recited (in most communities) for the government of the country, for peace, and for the State of Israel . Saturday morning additional service: Musaf The ''Musaf'' service starts with the silent recitation of the '' Amidah ''. It is followed by a second public recitation that includes an additional reading known as the ''Kedushah''. This is followed by the ''Tikanta Shabbat'' reading on the holiness of Shabbat , and then by a reading from the biblical Book Of Numbers about the sacrifices that used to be performed in the Temple In Jerusalem . Next comes ''Yismechu'', "They shall rejoice in Your sovereignty"; ''Eloheynu'', "Our God and God of our Ancestors, may you be pleased with our rest"; ''Retzei'', "Be favorable, our God, toward your people Israel and their prayer, and restore services to your Temple"; After the ''Amidah'' comes the full Kaddish , followed by ''Ein ke'eloheinu''. In Orthodox Judaism this is followed by a reading from the Talmud on the incense offering and daily psalms that used to be performed in the Temple in Jerusalem. These readings are usually omitted by Conservative Jews, and are always omitted by Reform Jews. The ''Musaf'' service culminates with the Rabbi's Kaddish, the '' Aleinu '', and then the Mourner's Kaddish. Some Synagogue s conclude with the reading of ''An'im Zemirot'', "The Hymn of Glory". Saturday afternoon: Mincha Mincha commences with Psalm 145 and the prayer ''U'va le-Tziyon'', after which the first section of the next Weekly Portion is Read From The Torah Scroll . The ''Amidah'' follows the same pattern as the other Shabbat ''Amidah'' prayers, with the middle blessing starting ''Attah Echad''. After Mincha, during the winter Sabbaths (from Sukkot to Passover ), ''Bareki Nafshi'' (Psalms 104, 120-134) is recited. During the summer Sabbaths (from Passover to Rosh Hashanah ) chapters from the '' Avot '', one every Sabbath in consecutive order, are recited instead of ''Barekhi Nafshi''. Saturday evening: Maariv The week-day Maariv is recited on Sabbath evening, concluding with ''Vihi No'am'', ''Ve-Yitten Leka'', and '' Havdalah ''. SERVICES ON PASSOVER, SHAVUOT AND SUKKOT The services for the three festivals of Pesach ("Passover"), Shavuot ("Feast of Weeks" or "Pentecost"), and Sukkot ("Feast of Tabenacles") are alike, except for interpolated references and readings for each individual festival. The preliminaries and conclusions of the prayers are the same as on Sabbath. The Amidah on these festivals only contains seven benedictions, with ''Attah Bechartanu'' as the main one. Hallel (communal recitation of Psalms 113-118) follows. The Musaf service includes Mi-Pene Hata'enu, with reference to the special festival and Temple sacrifices on the occasion. A Blessing On The Pulpit ("Dukhen") is pronounced by the " Kohanim " (Jewish priests) during the Amidah (this occurs daily in Israel, but only on Pesach , Shavuot , Sukkot , Rosh Hashanah , and Yom Kippur in the Diaspora ). On week-days and Sabbath the priestly blessing is recited by the Hazzan after the Modim ("Thanksgiving") prayer. (American Reform Jews omit the Musaf service.) RELATED CUSTOMS Many Jews sway their body back and forth during prayer. This practice (referred to as '' Shokeling '' in Yiddish ) is not mandatory, and in fact the Kabbalist Isaac Luria felt that it should not be done. In contrast, the German Medieval authority '' Maharil '' (Rabbi Jacob Molin) linked the practice to a statement in the Talmud that the Mishnaic sage Rabbi Akiva would sway so forcefully that he ended up at the other side of the room when praying (Talmud tractate Berachot). Money for '' Tzedakah '' (charity) is given during the weekday morning and afternoon services in many communities. WOMEN AND JEWISH SERVICES Throughout Orthodox Judaism , including its most liberal forms, men and women are required to sit in separate sections with a Mechitza (partition) separating them. Conservative/Masorti Judaism permits mixed seating (almost universally in the United States, but not in all countries). Reform and Reconstructionist congregations have it universally. and its argumentation system as binding. A small liberal wing within Modern Orthodox Judaism, particularly rabbis friendly to the Jewish Orthodox Feminist Alliance (JOFA), has begun re-examining the role of women in prayers based on an individual, case-by-case look at the historical role of specific prayers and services, doing so within what they claim to be classical ''halakhic'' argumentation. Accepting that where obligation exists only the obligated can lead, this minority has typically made three general arguments for expanded women's roles: (1) Because women were required to perform certain Korbanot (sacrifices) in the Temple In Jerusalem , women today are required to perform, and hence can lead (and can count in the ''minyan'' for if required), the specific prayers substituting for these specific sacrifices. ''Birchat Hagomel'' falls in this category (2) Because certain parts of the service were added after the Talmud defined mandatory services, such prayers are equally voluntary on everyone and hence can be led by women (and no ''minyan'' is required). ''Pseukei D'Zimrah'' in the morning and ''Kabbalat Shabbat'' on Friday nights fall in this category. (3) In cases where the Talmud indicates that women are generally qualified to lead certain services but do not do so because of the "dignity of the congregation", modern congregations are permitted to waive such dignity if they wish. Torah reading on Shabbat falls in this category. An argument that women are permitted to lead the services removing and replacing the Torah in the Ark on ''Shabbat'' extends from their ability to participate in Torah reading then. A number of Modern Orthodox congregations accept a few such arguments. Very few Orthodox congregations or authorities, Modern or otherwise, accept all or even most. JOFA has called congregations generally accepting such arguments Partnership Minyanim . In a Partnership Minyan, on Shabbat, women can typically lead Kabbalat Shabbat, the P'seukei D'Zimrah, the services for removing the Torah from and replacing it in the Ark, and Torah reading, as well as give a ''D'Var Torah'' or sermon. GUIDE ON ETIQUETTE FOR VISITORS In most synagogues or temples, it is considered a sign of respect for all male attendees to wear a head covering, usually a dress hat, or preferably a Kippa , which are usually provided near the front door, close to the sanctuary. The kipot may be provided by the families of the celebrants of special occasions. Orthodox and Conservative (Masorti) synagogues encourage all male attendees to cover their heads out of respect for God. Many Reform/Progressive temples do not require people to cover their heads, although some Reform Jews may choose to. As might be expected, there are some things that a non-Jewish visitor should do during a Jewish religious service, and there are some things widely considered inappropriate:
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