| International Phonetic Alphabet |
Index for International |
Shopping Phonetic |
Website Links For International Phonetic Alphabet |
Information AboutInternational Phonetic Alphabet |
|
The International Phonetic Alphabet ('''IPA''') is a system of Phonetic Notation devised by linguists to accurately and uniquely represent each of the wide variety of sounds ( Phone s or Phoneme s) used in spoken human language. It is intended as a notational standard for the Phonemic and Phonetic representation of all spoken languages. For a treatment of the English Language using the IPA, see International Phonetic Alphabet For English ; for a brief chart, see IPA Chart For English . History Description The general principle of the IPA is to provide a separate symbol for each Speech Segment , avoiding letter combinations ( Digraph s) such as '' Sh '' and '' Th '' in English Orthography , and avoiding ambiguity such as that of ''c'' In English . The principle of formation The IPA is what MacMahon (1996) has termed a "selective" phonetic alphabet. It aims to provide a separate symbol for every ''contrastive'' (that is, '' Phonemic '') sound occurring in human language. For instance, a Flap and a tap are two different articulations, but since no language has (yet) been found to make a phonemic distinction between them, the IPA does not provide them with dedicated symbols. Instead, it provides a single symbol, , that covers both. For ''non-contrastive'' (that is, '' Phonetic '' or ''subphonemic'') details of these sounds, the IPA relies on Diacritic s, which are optional. Thus there is a certain level of flexibility in representing a language with the IPA. Principles behind the symbols The letters chosen for the IPA are generally drawn from the Latin and Greek alphabets, or are modifications of Latin or Greek letters. There are also a few letters derived from Latin punctuation, such as the glottal stop (originally an Apostrophe , but later given the form of a "gelded" Question Mark to have the visual impact of the other consonants), and one, , although Latin in form, was inspired by Arabic letter <ﻉ> ''`ain''. On the other hand, the original Latin-derived symbols for the Click s have been abandoned in favor of iconic Khoisanist symbols such as . The sound-values of the Consonant s taken from the Latin Alphabet correspond to usage in French, and are close to those of most other European languages as well: , , , , , , , , , (unvoiced) , , , . English values are used for and . The Vowel s from the Latin alphabet (, , , , ) correspond to the vowels of Spanish and are similar to Italian . is like the vowel in ''piece'', like ''rule'', etc. The other symbols from the Latin alphabet, , , , , , and , correspond to sounds these letters represent in various other languages. has the Slavic and Germanic value of has the ''y'', German ''y'' or ''ü'', French ''u'', Dutch ''uu'', or the Classical Greek Υ (Upsilon). Letters that share a particular modification sometimes correspond to a similar type of sound. For example, all the Retroflex Consonant s have the same symbol as the equivalent Alveolar Consonant , with the addition of a rightward facing hook at the bottom. Although there is some correspondence between modified letters, generally the IPA symbols do not have a systematic Featural relationship between shape and articulation. For instance, there is not a consistent relationship between lowercase letters and their small capital counterparts, nor are all Labial Consonant s linked through a common design. Diacritic Mark s can be combined with IPA letters to transcribe modified Phonetic values or Secondary Articulation s. There are also special symbols for Suprasegmental Feature s such as Stress and Tone . Types of transcription The International Phonetic Association recommends that a Phonetic transcription should be enclosed in Square Brackets " {Link without Title} ". A transcription that specifically denotes only Phonological contrasts may be enclosed in Slash es "/ /" instead. If one is in doubt, it is best to use brackets, for by setting off a transcription with slashes one makes a theoretical claim that every symbol within is Phonemic ally contrastive for the language being transcribed. Phonetic transcriptions try to objectively capture the actual pronunciation of a word, whereas phonemic transcriptions are model-dependent. For example, in The Sound Pattern Of English , Noam Chomsky and Morris Halle transcribed the English word ''night'' phonemically as /nixt/. In this model, the phoneme /x/ is never realized as but shows its presence by "lengthening" the preceding vowel. The preceding vowel in this case is the phoneme /i/, which is pronounced [aj when "long". So phonemic /nixt/ is equivalent to phonetic [najt], but only if you share the belief that historical sounds such as the ''gh'' in ''night'' may remain in a word long after they have ceased to be pronounced, or that a phoneme may exist in a language without ever being directly expressed. (This was later rejected by Chomsky & Halle.) For phonetic transcriptions, there is flexibility in how closely sounds may be transcribed. A transcription that gives only a basic idea of the sounds of a language in the broadest terms is called a ''broad transcription''; in some cases this may be equivalent to a phonemic transcription (only without any theoretical claims). A close transcription, indicating precise details of the sounds, is called a ''narrow transcription''. These are not binary choices, but the ends of a continuum, with many possibilities in between. All are enclosed in brackets. For example, in some dialects the English word ''pretzel'' in a narrow transcription would be , which notes several phonetic features that may not be evident even to a native speaker. An example of a broader transcription is , which only indicates some of the easier to hear features. A yet broader transcription would be . Here every symbol represents an unambiguous speech sound, but without making any claims as to their status in the language. There are also several possibilities in how to transcribe this word phonemically, but here the differences are generally not of precision, but of analysis. For example, ''pretzel'' could be or . The special symbol for English ''r'' is not used, for it is not meaningful to distinguish it from a rolled ''r''. The differences in the letter ''e'' reflect claims as to what the essential difference is between the vowels of ''pretzel'' and ''pray''; there are half a dozen ideas in the literature as to what this may be. The second transcription claims that there are two vowels in the word, even if they can't both be heard, while the first claims there is only one. However, phonemic transcriptions may also be broad or narrow, or perhaps it would be better to say abstract vs. concrete. They may show a fair amount of phonetic detail, usually of a phoneme's most common allophone, but because they are abstract symbols they do not need to directly resemble any sound at all. Phonemic symbols will frequently be chosen to avoid diacritics as much as possible, under a 'one sound one symbol' policy, or may even be restricted to the ASCII symbols of a typical keyboard. For example, the English word ''church'' may be transcribed as , a close approximation of its actual pronunciation, or more abstractly as (three phonemes, three symbols), which is easier to type. Phonemic symbols should always be explained, especially when they are as divergent from actual pronunciation as . Occasionally a transcription will be enclosed in Pipes ("| |"). This goes beyond phonology into Morphological analysis. For example, the words ''pets'' and ''beds'' could be transcribed phonetically as and (in a fairly narrow transcription), and phonemically as and . Because /s/ and /z/ are separate Phoneme s in English (unlike Spanish, for example), they receive separate symbols in the phonemic analysis. However, you probably recognize that underneath this, they represent the same plural ending. This can be indicated with the pipe notation. If you believe the plural ending is essentially an ''s'', as English spelling would suggest, the words can be transcribed and . If, as most linguists would probably suggest, it is essentially a ''z'', these would be and . To avoid confusion with IPA symbols, it may be desirable to specify when native orthography is being used, so that, for example, the English word ''jet'' is not read as "yet". This is done with . The Extended IPA for Speech Pathology has added additional bracket notations. Parentheses are used to indicate ''mouthing'' (silent articulation), as in , a silent sign to hush; parentheses are also used to indicate silent pauses, for example (...). Double parentheses indicate obscured or unintelligible sound, as in ((2 syll.)), two audible but unidentifiable syllables. Curly brackets with Italian musical terms are used to mark prosodic notation, such as . Consonants (pulmonic) Single articulation The Pulmonic consonant table, which includes most consonants, is arranged in rows that designate Manner Of Articulation and columns that designate Place Of Articulation . The main chart only includes consonants with a single place of articulation. Notes:
Coarticulation Notes:
Consonants (non-pulmonic) Notes:
Vowels Notes:
Affricates and double articulation Affricate s and ''' Doubly Articulated stops''' are represented by two symbols joined by a tie bar, either above or below the symbols. The six most common affricates are optionally represented by ligatures, though this is no longer official IPA usage, due to the great number of ligatures that would be required to represent all affricates this way. A third affricate transcription sometimes seen uses the superscript notation for a consonant release, for example for , paralleling ~ . The symbols for the palatal plosives, are often used as a convenience for or similar affricates, even in official IPA publications, so they must be interpreted with care. Note:
Extended IPA The Extended IPA was designed for Disordered Speech . However, some of the symbols (especially diacritics, below) are occasionally used for transcribing normal speech as well. View a pdf file here . The last symbol may be used with the alveolar click for , a combined alveolar and sublaminal click or "cluck-click". Suprasegmentals Intonation Tone IPA allows for the use of either tone diacritics or tone letters to indicate tones. Note:
Diacritics Sub-diacritics may be placed above a symbol with a descender, i.e. . The dotless i, <ı>, is used when the dot would interfere with the diacritic. Other IPA symbols may appear as diacritics to represent phonetic detail: (fricative release), (breathy voice), (glottal onset), (epenthetic schwa), o (diphthongization). Notes: #Some linguists restrict this breathy-voice diacritic to sonorants, and transcribe obstruents as . #With aspirated voiced consonants, the aspiration is also voiced. Many linguists prefer one of the diacritics dedicated to breathy voice. The state of the Glottis can be finely transcribed with diacritics. A series of alveolar plosives ranging from an open to a closed glottis Phonation are: Extended IPA diacritics The ExtIPA has widened the use of some of the regular IPA symbols, such as for pre-aspiration, for uvularization, or for a linguolabial sibilant, as well as adding some new ones. Some of the ExtIPA diacritics are occasionally used for non-disordered speech, for example for the unusual airstream mechanisms of Damin . One modification is the use of subscript parentheses around the Phonation diacritics to indicate partial phonation; a single parenthesis at the left or right of the voicing indicates that it is partially phonated at the beginning or end of the segment. For example, is a partially voiced [s], shows partial initial voicing, and partial final voicing; also is a partially devoiced [z], shows partial initial devoicing, and partial final devoicing. These conventions may be convenient for representing various Voice Onset Time s. Phonation diacritics may also be prefixed or suffixed rather than placed directly under the segment to represent relative timing. For instance, is a Pre-voiced {Link without Title} , a post-voiced and is an [a with a Creaky offglide. Other ExtIPA diacritics are, In addition to these symbols, a subscript < or > indicates that an articulation is laterally offset to the left or right. Prosodic notation The ExtIPA also makes use of Italian musical notation for the Tempo and Dynamics of connected speech. These are subscripted on the insides of a {brace} notation that indicates that they are comments on the Prosody . Pauses are indicated with periods or numbers inside parentheses. Obsolete symbols, nonstandard symbols, and capital variants The IPA inherited alternate symbols from various traditions, but eventually settled on one for each sound. The other symbols are now considered obsolete. An example is for standard . Several symbols indicating secondary articulation have been dropped altogether, with the idea that such things should be indicated with diacritics: for is one. In addition, the rare voiceless implosive series has been dropped. There are also unsupported symbols from local traditions that find their way into publications that otherwise use the standard IPA. This is especially common with affricates such as . While the IPA does not itself have a set of capital letters (the ones that look like capitals are actually small capitals), many languages have adopted symbols from the IPA as part of their orthographies, and in such cases they have invented capital variants of these. This is especially common in Africa. An example is Kabye of northern Togo , which has (capital ). Other pseudo-IPA capitals supported by unicode are . How to transcribe sounds that don't have symbols in the IPA charts The remaining blank cells on the IPA chart can be filled without too much difficulty if the need arises. Some ''ad hoc'' symbols have appeared in the literature, for example for the lateral flaps and voiceless lateral fricatives, the epiglottal trill, and the labiodental plosives. Diacritics can supply much of the remainder, which would indeed be appropriate if the sounds were allophones. For example, the Spanish bilabial approximant is commonly written as a lowered fricative, . Similarly, voiced lateral fricatives would be written as raised lateral approximants, . A few languages such as Banda have a bilabial flap as the preferred allophone of what is elsewhere a labiodental flap. It has been suggested that this be written with the labiodental flap symbol and the advanced diacritic, . Similarly, a labiodental trill would be written (bilabial trill and the dental sign). Palatal and uvular taps, if they exist, and the epiglottal tap could be written as extra-short plosives, . A retroflex trill can be written as a retracted , just as retroflex fricatives sometimes are. The remaining consonants, the uvular laterals and the palatal trill, while not strictly impossible, are very difficult to pronounce and are unlikely to occur even as allophones in the world's languages. The vowels are similarly manageable by using diacritics for raising, lowering, fronting, backing, centering, and mid-centering. For example, the unrounded equivalent of can be transcribed as mid-centered , and the rounded equivalent of {Link without Title} as raised . True mid vowels are lowered , while centered are near-close and open central vowels, respectively. The vowels that aren't representable in this scheme are the Compressed vowels, which would require a dedicated diacritic. Names of the symbols It is often desirable to distinguish an IPA symbol from the sound it is intended to represent, since there is not a one-to-one correspondance between symbol and sound in broad transcription. The symbol's names and phonetic descriptions are described in the ''Handbook of the International Phonetic Association''. The symbols also have nonce names in the Unicode standard. In some cases, the Unicode names and the IPA names do not agree. For example, IPA calls "epsilon", but Unicode calls it "small letter open E". The letters The traditional names of the Latin and Greek letters are used for unmodified symbols. In Unicode, some of the symbols of Greek origin have Latin forms for use in IPA; the others use the symbols from the Greek section. Examples: Note #The Latin " Upsilon " is frequently called " Horseshoe U " in order to distinguish it from the Greek upsilon. Historically, it derives from a Latin small capital U. The IPA standard includes some small capital letters, such as , although it is common to refer to these symbols as simply "capital" or "cap" letters, because the IPA standard does not include any full-size capital letters. A few letters have the forms of cursive or script letters. Examples: Note #The "looptail G" is not strictly an IPA character, but is an acceptable alternative. #In form and origin, but not in name, this is the Greek upsilon. Ligatures are called precisely that, although some have alternate names. Examples: Many letters are ''turned'', or rotated 180 degrees. Examples: The symbol can be described as a ''turned cee'', but it is almost always referred to as ''open o'', which described both its articulation and its shape. The symbol is often also called " Caret " or "wedge" for its similarity to that diacritic. A few letters are ''reversed'' (flipped on a vertical axis): ''reversed E'', ''reversed epsilon'', ''reversed glottal stop'' called by its Arabic name, '' Ayin '' . One letter is ''inverted'' (flipped on a horizontal axis): ''inverted R''. ( could also be called an ''inverted double-u'', but ''turned double-u'' is more common.) When a horizontal stroke is added, it is called a ''bar'': ''barred H'', ''barred o'', ''reversed barred glottal stop'' or ''barred ayin'', ''barred dotless J'' or ''barred gelded J'' never 'turned F' , ''double-barred pipe'', etc. One letter instead has a ''slash'' through it: ''slashed O''. The implosives have ''hook'' tops: ''hook-top B'', as does ''hook-top H''. Such an extension at the bottom of a letter is called a ''tail''. It may be specified as ''left'' or ''right'' depending on which direction it turns: ''right-tail N'', ''right-tail turned R'', ''left-tail N'' that has its own traditional name, '' Engma '' , ''left-tail em'', ''tail Z'' just ''retroflex Z'' , etc. When the tail loops over itself, it's called ''curly'': ''curly-tail jay'', ''curly-tail C''. There are also a few unique modifications: ''belted L'', ''closed reversed epsilon'' was once also a ''closed omega'' , ''right-leg turned M'', ''turned long-leg R'' was once also a ''long-leg R'' , ''double pipe'', and the obsolete ''stretched C''. Several non-English letters have traditional names: ''C Cedilla '', '' Eth '' (also spelled ''edh''), '' Engma '', '' Schwa '', ''exclamation mark'', ''pipe''. Other symbols are unique to the IPA, and have developed their own quirky names: ''fish-hook R'', '' Ram's Horns '', '' Bull's Eye '', '' Esh '' never 'stretched ess' , '' Ezh '' also '' Yogh '' , ''hook-top heng''. The is usually called by the sound it represents, ''glottal stop''. This is not normally a problem, because this symbol is seldom used to represent anything else. However, to specify the symbol itself, it is sometimes called a ''gelded question mark''. The diacritic marks Diacritics with traditional names: : '' Acute '', '' Macron '', '' Grave '', '' Circumflex '', '' Caron , Wedge ,'' or '' Háček '', '' Diaeresis '' or '' Umlaut '', '' Breve '', ''(superscript) Tilde '', plus variants such as ''subscript tilde'', ''superimposed tilde'', etc. Non-traditional diacritics: : ''seagull'', ''hook'', ''over-cross'', ''corner'', ''bridge'', ''inverted bridge'', ''square'', ''under-ring'', ''over-ring'', ''left half-ring'', ''right half-ring'', ''plus'', ''under-bar'', ''arch'', ''subscript wedge'', ''up tack'', ''down tack'', ''left tack'', ''right tack'', ''tie bar'', ''under-dot'', ''under-stroke''. Diacritics are alternately named after their function: The bridge is also called the ''dental sign,'' the under-stroke the ''syllabicity sign,'' etc. Comparison to other phonetic notation The IPA is not the only phonetic transcription system in use. The other common Latin-based system is the Americanist Phonetic Notation , devised for representing American languages, but used by some US linguists as an alternate to the IPA. There are also sets of symbols specific to Slavic , Indic , Finno-Ugric , and Caucasian linguistics, as well as other regional specialies. The differences between these alphabets and IPA are relatively small, although often the special characters of the IPA are abandoned in favour of diacritics or digraphs. Other alphabets, such as Hangul , may have their own phonetic extensions. There also exist featural phonetic transcription systems, such as Alexander Bell 's Visible Speech and its derivatives. There is an extended version of the IPA for Disordered Speech (extIPA), which has been included in this article, and another set of symbols used for voice quality (VoQS). There are also many personal or idiosyncratic extensions, such as Luciano Canepari's ''canIPA'' . Since the IPA uses symbols that are outside the ASCII character set, several systems have been developed that map the IPA symbols to ASCII characters. Two notable systems are Kirshenbaum and SAMPA (or X-SAMPA ). These systems are often used in electronic media, although their usage has been declining with the development of computer technology, specifically because of spreading support for Unicode . See also: Unicode And HTML See also
External links
Free IPA font downloads
Keyboards
Sound files
Charts
Unicode Official Unicode PDF files:
Personal extensions of the IPA
References
|