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|unit_name= La Grande Armée |image= |caption= |dates= 1804–14 |country= France |allegiance= |branch= |type= |role= |size= At its height in 1812, consisted of: • 300,000 Frenchmen , Belgians and Dutchmen • 95,000 Poles • 25,000 Italians • 24,000 Bavarians • 20,000 Saxons • 17,000 Westphalia ns • 20,000 Prussia ns • 35,000 Austria ns • 15,000 Swiss • 3,500 Croatians |command_structure= |current_commander= |garrison= |ceremonial_chief= |colonel_of_the_regiment= |nickname= |patron= Napoleon I Of France |motto= Valeur Et Disipline! |colors= Le Tricolore |march=, La Marseillaise |mascot= French Imperial Eagle |battles= Ulm , Austerlitz , Jena-Auerstedt , Eylau , Friedland , Peninsular War 1808-1813 , Somosierra , Aspern-Essling , Wagram , Invasion Of Russia 1812 , Smolensk , Borodino , Berezina , Lützen , Dresden , Leipzig , Vauchamps , Arcis-sur-Aube , Ligny , Waterloo |notable_commanders= Napoleon I Of France |anniversaries= }} ''La Grande Armée'' ( French the '''Big''', '''Great''' or '''Grand Army''') is the French Military term for the main force in a military campaign. In practice, however, the term "the Grande Armée" is used in English to refer to the multi-national Armies gathered by Napoleon I in his campaigns of the early Nineteenth Century (see Napoleonic Wars ). Napoleon first attached the name to the ''Armée des côtes de l'Océan'', an army numbering some 200,000 men that he had assembled at Boulogne on the French coast of the English Channel during the period from 1804 to August 1805 for the proposed invasion of Britain . The Grande Armée originally consisted of six Corps under the command of Napoleon's Marshals and senior generals. When Napoleon discovered that Russia n and Austria n armies were preparing to invade France in late 1805, the Grande Armée was hurriedly ordered across the Rhine into Southern Germany , leading to Napoleon's victories at Ulm and Austerlitz . The army grew in size as Napoleon's might spread across Europe. It reached its maximum size of 600,000 men at the start of the Invasion Of Russia against the Sixth Coalition in 1812. All contingents were commanded by French generals, except for a Polish and an Austrian corps. The huge multi-national army marched slowly eastwards, with the Russians falling back before it. After the capture of Smolensk and victory in the Battle Of Borodino , Napoleon and a large part of the Grande Armée reached Moscow on 14 September 1812 . However, the army was already drastically reduced in numbers due to disease (principally Typhus ) and hunger caused by the Russian Scorched Earth strategy which left no forage for the French troops. The army spent a month in Moscow, but was ultimately forced to march back the way it had come, into the teeth of the harsh Russian winter. Assailed by cold, starvation and disease, and constantly harassed by Cossack s and Russian irregulars, and the retreat utterly destroyed the Grande Armée as a fighting force. As many as 400,000 died in the adventure and only a few tens of thousands of ravaged troops returned. Insects, Disease, and Military History: Destruction of the Grand Armée Napoleon led a new army to the Battle Of Nations at Leipzig in 1813, in the furious defence of France in 1814, and in the Waterloo Campaign in 1815, but the Napoleonic French army would never regain the heights of the Grande Armée in June 1812. of Napoleon I .]] Organization One of the most important factors in the Grande Armée's success was its superior and highly flexible organization. It was subdivided into several Corps (usually from five to seven), each numbering anywhere between 10,000 to 50,000, with the average size being around 20,000 to 30,000 troops. These ''Corps d'Armée'' were self-contained, smaller armies of Combined Arms , consisting of elements from all the forces and support services discussed below. While capable of fully independent operations, the Corps usually worked in close concert together and kept within a day's marching distance of one another. A Corps, depending on its size and the importance of its mission, was commanded by a Marshal , or ''Général d'Armée'' ( General ) or ''Général de Corps'' ( Lieutenant General ). Napoleon placed great trust in his Corps commanders and usually allowed them a wide freedom of action, provided they acted within the outlines of his strategic objectives and worked together to accomplish them. When they failed to do this to his satisfaction, however, he would not hesitate to reprimand or relieve them and in many cases took personal command of their Corps himself. Corps were first formed in 1800, when General Moreau divided the Army Of The Rhine into 4 Corps. These were only temporary groupings, however, and it was not until 1804 that Napoleon made them permanent units. He would sometimes form the cavalry into separate Corps, so they would be able to move and mass more quickly without being slowed by the infantry. The main tactical units of the Corps were the Divisions , usually consisting of 4,000 to 6,000 infantry or cavalrymen. These in turn were made up of 2 or 3 Brigades of 2 Regiments apiece and supported by an Artillery Brigade of 3 or 4 Batteries , each with 4 Field Cannon s and 2 Howitzer s, making 18 to 24 guns in all. The Divisions were also permanent administrative and operational units, commanded by a ''General de Division'' ( Major General ) and likewise capable of independent actions. Forces of La Grande Armée Imperial Guard France's Imperial Guard (''Garde Impériale'') was the elite military force of its time and grew out of the ''Garde des Consuls'' and ''Garde Consulaire''. It was, quite literally, a ''Corps d'Armée'' itself with infantry, cavalry and artillery divisions. Napoleon wanted it also to be an example for the entire army to follow and as a force that, since it had fought with him over several campaigns, was completely loyal. Although the infantry was rarely committed in mass, the Guard's cavalry was often thrown into battle as the killing blow and its artillery used to pound enemies prior to assaults. From a single regiment in 1800, it was steadily expanded until it was the size of a field army. Infantry of the Guard There were three sections:
Image:Grenadier-a-pied-de-la-Vieille-Garde.png|Grenadier à Pied, 1812 (Napoleon can be seen in the background) Image:Grognard1813.jpg|Grognard of the Old Guard in 1813 Image:Youngguard.jpg|Tirailleur of the 1e Regiment Tirailleurs, Young Guard 1811. Image:FusGren-FusChass.jpg|Fusilier-Grenadiers and Fusilier-Chasseurs of the Middle Guard, 1806-1814. Cavalry of the Guard In 1804, the Cavalry of the Guard consisted of two Regiment s, the ''Chasseurs à Cheval'' and the ''Grenadiers à Cheval'', along with a small unit of elite Gendarmes and a Squadron of Mamelukes . A third regiment was added in 1806, the ''Regiment de Dragons de la Garde Impériale'' (Later known as the ''Dragons de l’Imperatice'', the Empress Dragoons). Following the Campaign In Poland in 1807, a regiment of Polish Lancer s, the ''Regiment de Chevau-Légers de la Garde Impériale Polonais'' was added. The final addition was made in 1810, with another Regiment of Lancers, this time drawn from French and Dutch recruits, the ''2e Regiment de Chevau-Légers Lanciers de la Garde Impériale'' or Red Lancers. The cavalry of the Guard was involved combat numerous times, and with few exceptions proved its worth in action. Perhaps the most famous episode in the history of the Guard cavalry was the charge of the Polish Lancers at the Battle Of Waterloo , where, alongside line Cuirassier s, they routed the Scots Greys and the Union Brigade. .]]
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Cavalry By decree of the Emperor himself, Cavalry typically comprised between a fifth and a sixth of the Grande Armée. Cavalry regiments of 800-1,200 men were made up of three or four Escadrons of two companies each, plus supporting elements. The first company of the every regiment's first escadron, was always designated as 'Elite', with presumably, the best men and horses. In the revolution's wake, the cavalry suffered the greatest from the loss of experienced aristocratic officers and NCOs still loyal to the crown of the Ancien Régime . Consequently, the quality of French cavalry drastically declined. Napoleon rebuilt the branch, turning it into arguably the finest in the world. Until 1812 it was undefeated in any large engagements above the regimental level. There were two primary types of cavalry for different roles, heavy and light. Heavy cavalry
Light cavalry
Image:Cuirass.jpg| Cuirassier Image:Dragoon.jpg| Dragoon Image:Hussar.jpg| Hussar of the ''2éme Regiment du Hussards'', 1807. Image:Lancer.jpg| Lancer of the Régiment de la Vistule Lanciers Infantry s.]] While the Infantry was perhaps not the most glamorous arm of service in the Grand Armée, it was the infantry who bore the brunt of most of the fighting, and whose performance resulted in victory or defeat for Napoleon. In Napoleon's Grande Armée, the Infantry was divided up into two major types, the Infantry of the Line (''Infanterie de Ligne'') and the Light Infantry (''Infanterie Légère''). Infantry of the Line The Infantry of the Line made up the majority of the Grande Armée. In 1803, Napoleon had reinstated the term Regiment , the Revolutionary term ''demi-brigade'' (due to the fact there were two per brigade and it lacked the royal connotations) was now only used for provisional troops and depot units. At the time of the formation of the Grande Armée, the French Army had 89 ''Régiments de Ligne'', a number which roughly corresponded with the number of Département s in France. The ''Régiments de Ligne'' varied in size throughout the Napoleonic Wars, but the basic building block of the Infanterie of the Line was the Battalion . A line infantry battalion was numbered at about 840 men; however, this was the battalion's 'full strength' and few units ever reached this. A more typical strength for a battalion would be 400-600 men. A line battalion was composed of the following formations.
The Fusiliers made up the majority of a line infantry battalion, and may be considered the typical infantryman of the Grande Armée. The Fusilier was armed with a Smoothbore , Muzzle -loaded Flintlock Charleville Model 1777 Musket and a Bayonet . Fusilier training placed emphasis on speed of march and endurance, along with individually aimed fire at close range and close quarters combat. This differed greatly from the training given to the majority of European armies, which emphasised moving in rigid formations and firing massed Volley s. Many of the early Napoleonic victories were due to the ability of the French armies to cover long distances with speed, and this ability was thanks to the training given to the infantry. From 1803, each battalion comprised eight Fusilier Companies . Each company numbered around 120 men. In 1805, one of the Fusilier companies was dissolved and reformed as a ''Voltigeur'' company. In 1808, Napoleon reorganised the Infantry battalion from nine to six companies. The new companies were to be larger, comprising 140 men, and four of these were to be made up of Fusiliers, one of Grenadiers, and one of Voltigeurs. The line Fusilier wore a Bicorne hat, until this was superseded by the Shako in 1807. The uniform of a Fusilier consisted of white trousers, white surcoat and a dark blue coat (the ''habit longue'' model until 1812, thereafter the ''habit veste'') with white lapels, red collar and cuffs. Each Fusilier wore a coloured Pom-pom on his hat. The colour of this pom-pom changed depending on the company the man belonged to. After the 1808 reorganisation, the First company was issued with a Dark Green pom-pom, the second with Sky Blue , the third with Orange and the fourth with Violet . Grenadiers were the élite of the line infantry and the veteran shock troops of the Napoleonic infantry. Newly formed battalions did not have a Grenadier company; rather, Napoleon ordered that after two campaigns, several of the strongest, bravest and tallest fusiliers were to be promoted to the Grenadier company, so each line battalion which had seen more than two campaigns had one company of Grenadiers. Regulations required that Grenadiers recruits were to be the tallest, most fearsome men in the regiments, and all were to have Moustache s. To add to this, Grenadiers were initially equipped the a ''bonnet à poil'' or Bearskin , as well as red Epaulette s on their coat. After 1807 regulations stipulated that line Grenadiers were to replace their bearskin with a shako lined red with a red plume; however, many chose to retain their bearskins. In addition to the standard Charleville model 1777 and bayonet, Grenadiers were also equipped with a short Sabre . This was to be used for close combat, but most often ended up serving as a tool to cut wood for campfires. The Grenadier company would usually be situated on the right side of a formation, traditionally the place of greatest honour. During a campaign, Grenadier companies could be detached to form a Grenadier battalion or occasionally a regiment or brigade. These formations would then be used as a shock force or the vanguard for a larger formation. Voltigeurs (literally, ''Vaulters'' or ''Leapers'') were élite Light Infantry of the line regiments. In 1805, Napoleon ordered that the smallest, most agile men of the line battalions be chosen to form a Voltigeur company. These troops were to be second only to the Grenadiers in the battalion hierarchy. Their name comes from their original mission. Voltigeurs were to combat enemy cavalry by Vault ing up onto the enemy's horses, a fanciful idea which failed to succeed in combat. Despite this, the Voltigeurs did perform a valuable task, Skirmish ing and providing scouts for each battalion, as well as providing an organic light infantry component for each line regiment. In Voltigeur training, emphasis was placed on marksmanship and quick movement. Voltigeurs were equipped with large yellow and green or yellow and red plumes for their bicornes. After 1807, their shakos were lined with yellow and carried similar plumes. They also had yellow epaulettes lined green and a yellow collar on their coats. Originally, Voltigeurs were to be equipped with the short Dragoon musket, however in practice they were equipped with the Charleville model 1777 and bayonet. Like Grenadiers, Voltigeurs were equipped with a short sabre for close combat, and like Grenadiers this was rarely used. Voltigeur companies could be detached and formed into regiments or brigades to create a light infantry formation. After 1808, the Voltigeur company was situated on the left of the line when in combat. This was traditionally the second highest position of honour in the line of battle.
Tirailleurs (meaning "Skirmishers") were general purpose skirmishing and screening troops. Neither nimble enough nor good enough shots to be Voltigeurs, they were not part of the line battalions, but rather separate, usually non-French, formations (the ''Tirailleurs Corses'' and ''Tirailleurs du Pô'', for instance) or part of the Young Guard (the ''Tirailleurs-Grenadiers'' and ''Tirailleurs-Chasseurs''). They were often used as cannon and musket fodder, given dangerous tasks to spare the less expendable elements. When their ranks became depleted, select Fusiliers were often "promoted" to replenish them. It was an honour more readily accepted by the less experienced recruits. Light Infantry While the Infantry of the Line made up the majority of the Grande Armée's infantry, the ''Infanterie Légère'' ( Light Infantry ) also played an important role. The ''Légère'' regiments never numbered more than 35 (compared with the 155 of the ''Ligne'' regiments), and the ''Ligne'' could perform all the same manoeuvres, including skirmishing. The difference lay in the training and the resulting high ''esprit De Corps'' . Training for ''Légère'' units placed a strong emphasis on Marksmanship and fast movement. As a result, the general ''Légère'' soldier was able to shoot more accurately and move faster than his ''Ligne'' counterpart. ''Légère'' regiments tended to see more action and were often used to screen large manoeuvres. Naturally, due to the fact that commanders turned to the ''Légère'' for more missions than the ''Ligne'', the ''Légère'' troopers enjoyed a higher esprit de corps and were known for their flamboyant uniforms and attitude. Also, ''Légère'' troops were required to be shorter than line troops, which helped them to move quickly through forests as well as to hide behind obstacles when skirmishing. The formation of a ''Légère'' battalion exactly mirrored that of a battalion of line infantry, but different troop types were substituted for the Grenadiers, Fusiliers and Voltigeurs.
Chasseurs (''Hunters'') were the fusiliers of the ''Légère'' battalions. They made up the majority of the formation. They were armed with the Charleville model 1777 musket and a bayonet, and also with a short sabre for close combat. As was common in the Napoleonic army, this weapon was quickly blunted by being used to chop wood for fires. From 1803, each battalion comprised eight chasseur companies. Each company numbered around 120 men. In 1808, Napoleon reorganised the Infantry battalion from nine to six companies. The new companies were to be larger, comprising 140 men, and four of these were to be made up of chasseurs. The chasseurs had far more ornate uniforms than their contemporaries the fusiliers. Until 1806, they were equipped with a cylindrical shako with a large dark green plume and decorated with white cords. Their uniform was a darker blue than that of the line regiments, to aid with camouflage while skirmishing. Their coat was similar to that of the line troops, but their lapels and cuffs were also dark blue, and it featured dark green and red epaulettes. They also wore dark blue trousers and high imitation Hussar boots. After 1807, the cylindrical shako was replaced with the standard shako, but was still embellished by white cords. As with the line fusiliers, chasseur companies were distinguished by coloured pom-poms, but the colours for the different companies changed from regiment to regiment.
The Carabiniers were the grenadiers of the ''Légère'' battalions. After two campaigns, the tallest and bravest chasseurs were chosen to join the Carabinier company. They performed as élite shock troops for the battalion. As with the grenadiers, Carabiniers were required to wear moustaches. They were armed with the Charleville model 1777, a bayonet and a short sabre. The Carabinier uniform consisted of a tall bearskin cap (superseded in 1807 by a red trimmed shako with a red plume). They wore the same uniform as the chasseurs, but with red epaulettes. Carabinier companies could be detached to form larger all Carabinier formations for assaults or other operations requiring assault troops.
Voltigeurs performed exactly the same mission in the ''Légère'' battalion as they did in the line battalions, only they were more nimble and better marksmen. The ''Légère'' voltigeurs were dressed as chasseurs, but with Yellow and green epaulettes and before 1806, a ''colpack'' (or Busby ) replaced the shako. The colpack had a large yellow over red plume and green cords. After 1807, a shako replaced the colpack, with a large yellow plume and yellow lining. As with the line voltigeurs, ''légère'' voltigeurs could be detached and used to form larger formations as needed. Artillery The Emperor was a former Artillery officer, and dubbed it "The Queen Of The Battlefield". As may therefore be expected, France's Cannon were the backbone of the Grande Armée's forces, possessing the greatest fire-power of the three arms and hence the ability to inflict the most casualties in the least amount of time. The French guns were often used in massed batteries (or ''grandes Batteries'' ) to soften up enemy formations before being subjected to the closer attention of the infantry or cavalry. Superb gun-crew training allowed Napoleon to move the weapons at great speed to either bolster a weakening defensive position, or else hammer a potential break in enemy lines. Besides superior training, Napoleon's artillery was also greatly aided by the numerous technical improvements to French cannons by Jean Baptiste De Gribeauval which made them lighter, faster and much easier to sight, as well as strengthened the carriages and introduced standard sized calibres. In general, French guns were 4- Pound ers, 8-pounders or 12-pounders and 6- Inch Howitzers with the lighter calibres being phased out and replaced by 6-pounders later in the wars. French cannons had brass barrels and their carriages, wheels and limbers were painted olive-green. Superb organization, fully integrated the artillery into the infantry and cavalry units it supported, yet also allowed it to operate independently if the need arose. There were two basic types, ''Artillerie à Pied'' (Foot artillery) and ''Artillerie à Cheval'' (Horse artillery). Foot artillery As the name indicates, these gunners marched alongside their guns, which were, of course, pulled by horses when limbered (undeployed). Hence they travelled at the Infantry's pace or slower. In 1805 there were 8, later 10, regiments of foot artillery in the Armée plus 2 more in the Imperial guard, but unlike cavalry and infantry regiments, these were administrative organizations. The main operational and tactical units were the batteries (or companies) of 120 men each which were formed into brigades and assigned to the divisions and corps.
Battery personnel included not only gun crews, NCOs and officers but drummers, metal workers, woodworkers, ouvriers, furriers and artificers. They would be responsible for fashioning spare parts, maintaining and repairing the guns, carriages, caissons and wagons, as well as tending the horses and storing munitions. Horse artillery The cavalry were supported by the fast moving, fast firing light guns of the Horse Artillery . This arm was a hybrid of cavalry and artillery with their crews either riding on the horses or on the carriages into battle. Because they operated much closer to the front lines, the officers and crews were better armed and trained for close quarters combat, mounted or dismounted much as were the dragoons. Once in position they were trained to quickly dismount, unlimber (deploy) and sight their guns, then fire rapid barrages at the enemy. They could then quickly limber (undeploy) the guns, remount, and move on to a new position. To accomplish this, they had to be the best trained and most elite of all artillerymen. The horse batteries of the Imperial guard could go from riding at full gallop to firing their first shot in just under a minute. After witnessing such a performance, an astounded Duke Of Wellington remarked, "They move their cannon as if it were a pistol!" There were 6 administrative regiments of horse artillery plus one in the guard. In addition to the batteries assigned to the cavalry units, Napoleon would also assign at least one battery to each infantry corps or, if available, to each division. Their abilities came at a price, however, horse batteries were very expensive to raise and maintain. Consequently they were far fewer in number than their foot counterparts, typically comprising only 1/5 of the artillery's strength. It was a boastful joke among their ranks that the Emperor knew every horse gunner by name. Besides better training, horses, weapons and equipment, they used far more ammunition. Horse batteries were given twice the ammo ration of the foot, those of the guard three times. Artillery Train The ''Train d’artillerie'', was established by Bonaparte in 1800. Its function was to provide ammunition, without which the artillery would be useless. Prior to this, the train was manned by civilian contract drivers and workers, in other armies this was still the case throughout the wars. But Napoleon insisted all its personnel be armed, trained and uniformed as soldiers. Which, apart from making them look better on parade, also improved their efficiency in performance of their vital duties and made them fully capable of fighting back if attacked. The drivers were armed with a carbine, a short sword of the same type used by the infantry and a pistol. They needed little encouragement to use these weapons, earning surly reputations for gambling, brawling and various forms of mischief. Their uniforms and coats of grey helped enhance their tough appearance. But their combativeness could prove useful as they often found themselves attacked by cossacks, Spanish and Tyrolian guerillas. The train was divided into 10 battalions, of 5 companies each. On campaign, each company would be teamed with a battery which it would supply. The first company was considered elite and was teamed with a horse battery, the remaining four "centre" companies with foot batteries. The Imperial Guard had its own separate train, organized in a similar fashion, except its companies were formed into three regiments, instead of battalions, with one train regiment teamed to supply one of the guard's three artillery regiments. Support services Engineers While the glory of battle went to the cavalry, infantry and artillery, the army also included Military Engineer of various types. The bridge builders of the Grande Armée, the ''pontonniers'', were an indispensable part of Napoleon's military machine. Their main contribution was helping the emperor to get his forces across water obstacles by erecting Pontoon Bridge s. The skills of his pontonniers allowed Napoleon to outflank enemy positions by crossing rivers where the enemy least expected and, in the case of the great retreat from Moscow , saved the army from complete annihilation at the Beresina . They may not have had the glory, but Napoleon clearly valued his pontonniers and had 14 companies commissioned into his armies, under the command of the brilliant engineer, General Jean Baptiste Eble . His training along with their specialized tools and equipment, enabled them to quickly build the various parts of the bridges, which could then be rapidly assembled and reused later. All the needed materials, tools and parts were carried on their wagon trains. If they did not have a part or item, it could be quickly made using the pontonniers' mobile wagon-mounted forges. A single company of pontonniers could construct a bridge of up to 80 pontoons (a span of some 120 to 150 Metre s long) in a just under seven hours, an impressive feat even by today's standards. In addition to the pontonniers, there were companies of Sapper s, to deal with enemy fortifications. They were used far less often in their intended role than the pontonniers, however, since the emperor had learned in his early campaigns (such as at the Siege Of Acre ) that it was better to bypass and isolate fixed fortifications, if possible, than to directly assault them, so the sapper companies were usually put to other tasks. The different types of engineer companies were formed into battalions and regiments called ''Génie'' , which was originally a Slang term for engineer. This name, which is still used today, was both a play on the word (''jeu de mot'') and a reference to their seemingly magical abilities to grant wishes and make things appear much like the mythical Genie . Logistics One of Napoleon's most quoted lines is his dictum that "An army is a creature which marches on its stomach". This clearly illustrates the vital importance of Military Logistics . The troops of the Grande Armée each carried 4 days' provisions. The supply wagon trains following them carried 8 days', but these were to be consumed only in emergency. Insofar as possible, Napoleon encouraged his men to live off the land through foraging and requisition of food (which was known as '' La Maraude ''). Additional supplies would be stockpiled and stored at forward bases and depots which he would establish before the start of his campaigns. These would then be moved forward as the army advanced. The Grande Armée's supply bases would replenish the Corps and Divisional depots, which in turn would replenish the Brigade and Regimental supply trains, which would distribute rations and ammunition to the troops as needed to supplement their foraging. The reliance on foraging was sometimes determined by political pressures. When marching over friendly territory armies were told to "live off what the country can supply", but when marching over neutral territory they were issued with supplies. It was this system of planned and improvised logistics which enabled the Grande Armée to sustain rapid marches of up to 15 miles per day for up to 5 weeks. The logistical system was also aided by a technological innovation in the form of the food preservation technique invented by Nicolas François Appert , which led to modern Canning methods. Medical staff leaving the battle), 1814 by Théodore Géricault .]] The medical services had the least glory or prestige, yet they were required to deal with the full horrors of war's aftermath. Every regiment, division and corps had its own medical staff, consisting of corpsmen to find and transport the wounded, orderlies to provide assistance and nursing functions, apothecaries, surgeons and doctors. These staffs were often filled by poorly-trained and inept men, unfit for any other work. Conditions in the Grande Armée, as in all armies of the time, were primitive at best. Far more soldiers died of their wounds or from sickness than in battle (see Napoleonic Wars Casualties ). There was no knowledge of Hygiene or Antibiotic s. Virtually the only surgical procedure was Amputation . The only Anaesthetic consisted of strong Alcohol ic drink or even, in some cases, knocking the patient unconscious. Typically only a third survived the operation. While the technology and practice of military medicine did not advance significantly during the Napoleonic wars, the Grande Armée did benefit from improvements in the organization of staffs and the establishment of a ''Flying Ambulance'' system, by its Surgeon General, Baron Dominique Jean Larrey . After seeing the speed with which the carriages of the French ''flying artillery'' manoeuvred across the battlefields, General Larrey adapted them for rapid transport of the wounded and manned them with trained crews of drivers, corpsmen and litter bearers. This forerunner of the modern military Ambulance system, was eventually adapted by armies throughout the world in the following decades. In addition, Larrey increased the mobility and improved the organization of Field Hospital s, effectively creating a prototype for the modern Mobile Army Surgical Hospital . Accounts of the ordeals of the wounded are horrific reading. Napoleon, himself, once noted "It requires more courage to suffer than to die", so he made sure those who did survive were given the best treatment available at the best hospitals in France while they recuperated. In addition, the wounded survivors were often treated as heroes, awarded medals, pensions and provided with Prosthetic Limb s if needed. Knowing that they would be promptly attended to, then honored and well looked after once back home, helped boost morale in the Grande Armée, and thus further contributed to its fighting abilities. Communications Communications, though described here last, were certainly not the least of essential support services. Most Dispatches were conveyed as they had been for centuries, via messengers on horseback. Hussars, due to their bravery and riding skills, were often favoured for this task. Shorter range tactical signals could be sent visually by flags or audibly by drums, bugles, trumpets and other musical instruments. Thus standard bearers and musicians, in addition to their symbolic, ceremonial and morale functions, also played important communication roles. tower near Saverne , France.]] The Grande Armée did benefit from innovations made in long range communications during the French Revolution . The French army was among the first to employ Homing Pigeons as messengers in any large and organized manner, and also the first to use Observation Ballons for reconnaissance and communications. But the real advance for conveying long range dispatches came in the form of an ingenious optical Telegraph Semaphore system invented by Claude Chappe . Chappe's system was comprised of an intricate network of small towers, within visual range of one another. On top of each was a 9 metre mast, with three large, movable wooden rods mounted on them. These rods, called the ''régulateur'' (regulator), were operated by trained crews using a series of pulleys and levers. The four basic positions of the rods could be combined to form 196 different "signs". Provided with good crews of operators and decent visibility conditions, a sign could be sent through the 15 station towers between Paris and Lille , a distance of 193 Km (120 Mile s), in only 9 Minute s, a complete message of 36 signs in about 32 minutes. From Paris to Venice , a message could be sent in only six hours. Chappe's telegraph soon became one of Napoleon's favourite and most important secret weapons. A special portable version semaphore telegraph travelled with his headquarters. Using it he was able to coordinate his logistics and forces over longer distances in far less time than his enemies. Work was even begun on a wagon-mounted version in 1812, but not completed in time for use in the wars. Ranks of the Grande Armée Unlike the armies of the Ancien Régime and other monarchies, advancement in the Grande Armée was based on proven ability rather than social class or wealth. Napoleon wanted his army to be a Meritocracy , where every soldier, no matter how humble of birth, could rise rapidly to the highest levels of command, much as he had done (provided, of course, they did not rise too high or too fast). By and large this goal was achieved. Given the right opportunities to prove themselves, capable men could rise to the top within a few years, whereas in other armies it usually required decades if at all. It was said even the lowliest private carried a marshal's baton in his knapsack. Here is a list of officer and enlisted ranks with their contemporary Anglo-American equivalents, followed by a gallery of some of those who rose to the top, earned their Baton s and played key roles in the Armée's campaigns and operations. Image:Jean Baptiste Bernadotte.jpg| Jean Baptiste Bernadotte Image:louisberthier1.jpg| Louis Alexandre Berthier Image:Jeanbabtistebessieres.JPG| Jean-Baptiste Bessières Image:louisdavout1.jpg| Louis Nicolas Davout Image:MaréchalLannes03.jpg|: Jean Lannes Image:Etienne-Jacques-Joseph-Alexandre MacDonald.jpg|: Étienne-Jacques MacDonald Image:marmont2.jpg|: Auguste Marmont Image:andremassena1.jpg|: André Masséna Image:mortier.jpg| Édouard Joseph Mortier Image:Murat2.jpg|: Joachim Murat Image:michelney1.jpg|: Michel Ney Image:Nicolas Charles Oudinot.png|: Nicolas Oudinot Image:Jozef Antoni Poniatowski 3.jpg| Józef Antoni Poniatowski Image:Louisgabrielsuchet.JPG| Louis Gabriel Suchet Image:Soult.jpg|: Nicolas Soult Image:viktor.jpg|: Claude Victor Formations and tactics While Napoleon is best known as a master strategist and charismatic presence on the battlefield, he was also a tactical innovator. He combined classic formations and tactics which had been used for thousands of years, with more recent ones such as Frederick The Great's "Oblique Order" (Best illustrated at the Battle Of Leuthen ) and the "Mob tactics" of the early Levée En Masse armies of the Revolution . Napoleonic tactics and formations were highly fluid and flexible. In contrast, many of the Armée's opponents were still wed to a rigid system of "Linear" (or Line) tactics and formations, in which masses of infantry would simply line up and exchange vollies of fire, in an attempt to either blow the enemy from the field or outflank them. Due to the vulnerabilities of the line formations to flanking attacks, it was considered the highest form of military manoeuvre to outflank ones' adversary. Armies would often retreat or even surrender if this was accomplished. Consequently, commanders who adhered to this system, would place a great emphasis on flank security, often at the expense of a strong centre or reserve. Napoleon would frequently take full advantage of this linear mentality, by feigning flank attacks, or offering the enemy his own flank as "bait" (Best illustrated at the Battle Of Austerlitz and also later at Lützen ), then throw his main effort against their centre, split their lines and roll up their flanks. He always kept a strong reserve as well, mainly in the form of his Imperial Guard, which could deliver a "knockout blow" if the battle was going well or turn the tide if it was not. Some of the more famous, widely used, effective and interesting formations and tactics included:
History ''For a history of the French army in the period 1792-1804 during the wars of the First and Second Coalitions see French Revolutionary Armies .'' Originally intended for the invasion of England, La Grande Armée turned its sights eastwards when the Third Coalition was formed in 1805. They left the Boulougne camps late in August of 1805 and through a rapid march struck at General Karl Mack 's isolated Austrian army at the fortress of Ulm . The Ulm Manouver , as it came to be known, resulted in 60,000 Austrian captives at the cost of just 2,000 French soldiers. However, Austria's Russian allies had still not been committed to major fighting, so the war had to go on. Affairs were decisively settled on December 2 , 1805 at the Battle Of Austerlitz , where a numerically inferior French army routed a Russo-Austrian army led by Czar Alexander I . The stunning victory led to the Treaty Of Pressburg on December 26 , 1805, with the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire coming the following year. The alarming increase of French power in Central Europe disturbed Prussia , which had remained neutral in the conflicts of the previous year. After much diplomatic wrangling, Prussia secured promises of Russian military aid and the Fourth Coalition against France came into being in 1806. La Grande Armée advanced into Prussian territory with the famed bataillon-carré ("battalion square") system, whereby corps marched in close supporting distances and became vanguards, rearguards, or flank forces as the situation demanded, and severely defeated the Prussian armies at the Battle Of Jena and the Battle Of Auerstadt , both fought on October 14 , 1806. After a legendary pursuit, the French had captured about 140,000 Prussians and killed and wounded roughly 25,000. Davout 's III Corps , the victors at Auerstadt, received the honours of first marching into Berlin . Once more, the French had defeated an enemy before allies could arrive, and once more, this did not bring peace. Napoleon now turned his attentions to Poland, where the remaining Prussian armies were linking up with their Russian counterparts. A difficult winter campaign produced nothing but a stalemate, made worse by the Battle Of Eylau on February 7 - February 8 , 1807 , where Russian and French casualties soared for little gain. The campaign resumed in the Spring and this time Bennigsen 's Russian army was thoroughly routed at the Battle Of Friedland on June 14 , 1807. This victory produced the Treaty Of Tilsit between France and Russia in July, leaving Napoleon with no enemies on the continent. Portugal 's refusal to comply with the Continental System led to a punitive French expedition in late 1807. This campaign formed the basis for the Peninsular War , which was to last six years and drain the First Empire of vital resources and manpower. The French attempted to occupy Spain in 1808, but a series of disasters prompted Napoleon to intervene personally later in the year. The 125,000-strong Grande Armée marched inexorably forward, capturing the fortress of Burgos , clearing the way to Madrid at the Battle Of Somosierra , and sending the Spanish armies reeling backwards. They then hurled themselves towards Moore 's British army, prompting them to withdraw from the Iberian Peninsula after a heroic action at the Battle Of Corunna on January 16 , 1809 . The campaign was successful, but it would still be some time before the French were able to occupy Southern Spain. Meanwhile, the Austrians were stirring up trouble again. The war party at the court of King Francis I convinced him to have another war with the French. In April 1809, the Austrians opened the campaign without a formal declaration of war and caught the French by surprise. They were too slow to exploit their gains, however, and Napoleon's arrival from Paris finally stabilized the situation. The Austrians were defeated at the Battle Of Eckmühl , fled over the Danube , and lost the fortress of Ratisbon . But they still remained a cohesive, fighting force, which meant further campaigning was required to settle the issue. The French captured Vienna and attempted to cross the Danube via Lobau island southeast of the Austrian capital, but they lost the subsequent Battle Of Aspern-Essling , the first defeat for La Grande Armée. A second attempt to cross the river proved more successful in July and set the stage for the two-day Battle Of Wagram , where the French emerged victorious, inflicting some 40,000 casualties on the Austrians. The defeat demoralized the Austrians so heavily that they agreed to an Armistice shortly afterwards. This eventually led to the Peace Of Schönbrunn in October 1809. La Grande Armée had brought the Fifth Coalition to an end and the Austrian Empire lost three million citizens as a result of the treaty's border changes. With the exception of Spain, a three-year lull ensued for France's hitherto quasi-invincible army. Diplomatic tensions with Russia, however, became so acute that they eventually led to war in 1812. Napoleon assembled the largest army he had ever commanded (see top) to deal with the Russian menace. .]] The new Grande Armée was somewhat different than before; over half of the men were not French, coming from satellite states or countries allied to France. Many of them were conscripts as well. The hulking behemoth crossed the Niemen on June 23 , 1812, and Napoleon hoped that quick marching could place his men between the two main Russian armies, commanded by Barclay De Tolly and Bagration . However, the campaign was characterized by many frustrations, as the Russians succeeded no less than three times in evading Napoleon's jaws. A final stand for the defence of Moscow led to the massive Battle Of Borodino on September 7 , 1812. The French won, but not decisively enough to bring the Russians to the peace table. La Grande Armée occupied Moscow seven days after Borodino, but the city immediately caught on fire, forcing the French army to get rid of the flames and protect Moscow's historic districts. Napoleon and his army spent over a month in Moscow, vainly hoping that the Czar would respond to the French peace feelers. Those efforts having failed, the French set out on October 19 , now only a shadow of their former selves. The epic retreat over the famous Russian Winter dominates popular conceptions of the war, even though over half of the French army had been lost during the Summer. The French were harassed repeatedly by the converging Russian armies, Ney even conducting a famous rearguard separation between his troops and the Russians, and by the time the Berezina was reached Napoleon only had about 49,000 troops and 40,000 stragglers of little military value. The resulting Battle Of Berezina and the monumental work of Eble 's engineers passed into immortality. Napoleon had managed to save himself and part of his army. He left his men in order to reach Paris and address new military and political matters. Of the 690,000 men that comprised the initial invasion force, only 93,000 survived. The catastrophe in Russia now emboldened anti-French sentiments throughout Germany and Austria. The Sixth Coalition was formed and Germany became the centrepiece of the upcoming campaign. With customary genius, Napoleon raised new armies and opened up the campaign with a series of victories at the Battle Of Lützen and the Battle Of Bautzen . Were it not for the poor quality of French cavalry following the Russian campaign, these triumphs may have been decisive enough to permanently conclude the war there and then. As it were, they only secured an armistice. The break was welcomed by all, but when Austria joined the Allies, Napoleon's strategic picture grew bleak. The campaign opened up again in August with a significant French victory at the two-day Battle Of Dresden . However, the adoption of the Trachenburg Plan by the Allies, which called for avoiding direct conflict with Napoleon and focusing on his subordinates, paid dividends as the French suffered defeats at Katzbach , Kulm , Grossbeeren , and Dennewitz . Growing Allied numbers eventually hemmed the French in at Leipzig , where the famous three-day Battle Of The Nations witnessed a heavy loss for Napoleon when a bridge was prematurely destroyed, abandoning 30,000 French soldiers on the other side of the Elster River . The campaign, however, did end on a victorious note when the French destroyed an isolated Bavarian army which was trying to block their retreat at Hanau . "The Grand Empire is no more; it is France herself we must now defend" were Napoleon's words to the Senate at the end of 1813. The Emperor managed to raise new armies, but strategically he was in a virtually hopeless position. Allied armies were invading from the Pyrenees , across the plains of Northern Italy , and via France's eastern borders as well. The campaign began ominously when Napoleon suffered defeat at the Battle Of La Rothiere , but he quickly regained his former spirit. In the Six Days Campaign of February 1814, the 30,000-man French army inflicted 20,000 casualties on Blucher 's scattered corps at a cost of just 2,000 for themselves. They then headed south and defeated Schwarzenberg at the Battle Of Montereau . These victories, however, could not cure such a bad situation, and French defeats at the Battle Of Laon and the Battle Of Arcis-sur-Aube dampened moods. At the end of March, Paris fell to the Allies. Napoleon wanted to keep fighting, but his marshals refused, forcing the Emperor of France to abdicate on April 6 , 1814. After coming back from Elba in February 1815, Napoleon busied himself in making a renewed push to secure his Empire. For the first time in a while, the army he would be commanding for the upcoming Belgian Campaign was professional and competent. Napoleon hoped to catch and defeat the Allied armies under Wellington and Blucher in Belgium before the Russians and Austrians could arrive. The campaign began on June 15 , 1815, going reasonably well and leading to victory over the Prussians at the |