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Genghis Khan ( ,''Chinggis Khan'', ''Jenghis Khan'', ''Chinggis Qan'', etc.), ( ), was the tribes and forged a powerful army based on Meritocracy , to become one of the most successful Military leaders in history. While his image in the West is that of a ruthless bloodthirsty conqueror, Genghis Khan is celebrated as a hero in Mongolia , where he is seen as the father of the Mongol Nation . Before becoming a '' Khan '', Temüjin united the many Turkic - Mongol Confederation s of Central Asia , giving a common Identity to what had previously been a territory of Nomad ic tribes. He also helped create a writing system for the Mongolian Language based on existing Uyghur Script . Starting with the conquest of Western Xia in Northern China and consolidating through a number of conquests such as the Khwarezmid Empire in Persia , Genghis Khan laid the foundation for an empire that was to leave an indelible mark on world history. Several centuries of Mongol rule across the Eurasia n landmass, a period that some refer to as ' Pax Mongolica ', radically altered the Demography and Geopolitics of these areas, and catalyzed the emergence of modern Nation s such as Russia , Turkey , Germany , Iran , China , and through a descendant, India . EARLY LIFE Birth , Mongolia in fall, a site where Temujin was born and grew up.]] Little is known about Temüjin's early life, and the few sources providing insight into this period do not agree on many basic facts. He was likely born around 1162 in the mountainous area of Burhan Haldun in Mongolia 's Hentiy Province near the Onon River and the Herlen River . He was the eldest son of Yesükhei , a minor tribal chief of the Kiyad and a Nöker (vassal) of Ong Khan of the Kerait tribe, possibly descended from a family of blacksmiths (see below, name). Yesükhei's clan was called Borjigin (Боржигин), and his mother, Hoelun , was of the Olkhunut tribe of the Mongol confederation. They were Nomad s like almost all Central Asian Turkic and Mongol originated confederations. Family See Also: Family tree of Genghis Khan Genghis was related through his father to Qabul Khan , Ambaghai and Qutula Khan who had headed the Mongol confederation under Jin Dynasty patronage until the Jin switched support to the Tatar s in 1161 and destroyed Qutula Khan. Genghis' father, Yesugei, khan of the Borjigin , and nephew to Ambaghai and Qutula Khan, emerged as the head of the ruling clan of the Mongols, but this position was contested by the rival Tayichi’ud clan, who descended directly from Ambaghai . When the Tatars, in turn, grew too powerful after 1161, the Jin moved their support from the Tatars to the Kerait. Temüjin had three brothers, Khasar (or Qasar), Khajiun, and Temüge, and one sister, Temülen (or Temulin), as well as two half-brothers, Bekhter and Belgutei . Genghis Khan's Empress and first wife Borte bore him four legitimate sons, Jochi ( 1185 – 1226 ), Chagatai (?— 1241 ), Ögedei (?— 1241 ), and Tolui ( 1190 – 1232 ). Genghis Khan also had many other children with his other wives, but they were excluded from the succession, and records on what daughters he may have had are scarce. The paternity of Genghis Khan's eldest son, Jochi , remains unclear to this day, and was a serious point of contention in his lifetime, despite being a forbidden subject by order of the Khan himself. Soon after Borte's marriage to Temüjin, she was kidnapped by the Merkit s and reportedly given to one of their men as a wife. Though she was rescued, she gave birth to Jochi nine months later, clouding the issue of his parentage. This uncertainty over Jochi's true father was voiced most strongly by Chagatai , who, according to The Secret History Of The Mongols , declared before his father and brothers that he would never accept Jochi as Khagan (i.e., as Genghis Khan's successor). In response to this tension and by other possible reasons, it was Ögedei who was appointed as successor and who ruled as Khagan after Genghis Khan's death, even though Jochi had died in 1226, before his father. Genghis Khan himself never doubted Jochi's lineage claiming he was his first son. Childhood Based on legends and later writers, Temüjin's early life was difficult. His father delivered him to his future wife's family when he was only nine. He was supposed to live there until he reached the Marriageable age of 12. Shortly thereafter, his father was poisoned by the neighboring Tatars while returning home. This gave Temüjin a claim to be the clan's chief, though his clan refused to be led by a boy and soon abandoned him and his family. For the next few years, he and his family lived the life of impoverished Nomad s, surviving primarily on wild fruits, Marmot s and other small game. In one incident, Temüjin murdered his half-brother Bekhter over a dispute about sharing Hunting spoils. Despite being severely reproached by his mother he never expressed any remorse over the killing. In another incident in 1182, he was captured in a raid by his former Tribe , the Ta'yichiut, and held captive. The Ta'yichiut planned on executing Temüjin, but he escaped with help from a sympathetic captor, the father of Chilaun, a future general of Genghis Khan. His mother, Hoelun, taught him many lessons in survival in the harsh landscape and even grimmer political climate of Mongolia, especially the need for Alliance s with others, a lesson which would shape his understanding in his later years. Jelme and Borchu, two of Genghis Khan's future generals, joined him around this time. Along with his brothers, they provided the manpower needed for early expansion and diplomacy for Temüjin. Temüjin married Börte of the Konkirat tribe around the age of 16, being betrothed as children by their parents as a customary way to forge a tribal alliance. She was later kidnapped in a raid by the Merkit tribe, and Temüjin rescued her with the help of his friend and future rival, Jamuka , and his protector, Wang Khan of the Kerait tribe. She remained his true love and only empress, although he followed tradition by taking several morganatic concubines. Börte's first Child , Jochi , was born roughly nine months after she was freed from the Merkit, leading to questions about the child's paternity - although Genghis fiercely contended that Jochi was his son. Temüjin became Blood Brother (''anda'') with Jamuka and thus the two made a vow to be faithful to each other for eternity. Uniting the Central Asian confederations in c. 1200 . including Naimans , Merkit s, Uyghur s, Mongols , and Keraits ]] Main Central Asian Confederations at the time of Temujin's unification were: The main opponents of the Mongols by around c. 1100 were the Naimans to the west, the Merkits to the north and the Tatars to the east. By 1190 , Temüjin and his advisors had united together the Mongol confederation only. As an incentive for absolute obedience and following of his code of laws, the Yassa code, he promised civilians and fighters wealth from future possible war spoils. However the exact words of the Yassa are unknown because it was never found. Temüjin began his slow ascent to power by allying himself with his father's ''anda'' (sworn brother or Blood Brother ). Temüjin's ally was Toghrul, Khan of the Kerait and better known by the Chinese title Wang Khan which the Jin Empire granted him in 1197. Temüjin was adopted as Wang Khan's heir after successful campaigns against the Tatars ( 1202 ) and other various tribes. This led to jealousy on the part of Senggum, Wang's former heir, who allegedly planned to assassinate Temüjin. Temüjin learnt of Senggum's intentions, eventually defeated him and his loyalists. Toghrul possibly feared the increasing power of Temüjin among the Mongol populace and adopted an obstinate attitude towards collaboration. One of the ruptures later between Toghrul and Temüjin was the refusal of Toghrul to give his daughter in marriage to Jochi , the eldest son of Temüjin, which signified disrespect in the Mongol culture. This act probably led to the split and the prelude of the war between both factions. Toghrul allied himself with Jamuqa , Temüjin's Blood Brother , or ''anda'', and when the confrontation took place, the internal divisions between Toghrul and Jamuqa, as well as the desertion of many clans that fought on their side to the cause of Temüjin, led to Toghrul's defeat. This paved the way for the fall and extinction of the Kerait tribe. The next direct threat to Temüjin was the Naimans , with whom Jamuka and his followers took Refuge . The Naimans did not surrender, although enough sectors again voluntarily sided with Temüjin. In 1201 , a Khuriltai elected Jamuka as Gur Khan , universal ruler, a title used by the rulers of the Kara-Khitan Khanate . Jamuka's assumption of this title was the final breach with Temüjin, and Jamuka formed a coalition of tribes to oppose him. Before the conflict, however, several generals abandoned Jamuka, including Subutai, Jelme's well-known younger brother. After several battles, Jamuka was finally captured in 1206 after several shepherds kidnapped and turned him over to Temüjin. According to the pro-Genghis histories, Temüjin generously offered his friendship again to Jamuqa and asked him to turn to his side. Jamuqa refused and asked for a noble death, i.e. without spilling blood, which was granted (his back was broken). The rest of the Merkit clan that sided with the Naimans were defeated by Subutai (or Subedei), a member of Temüjin's personal guard who would later become one of the greatest Commander s in the service of the Khan. The Naimans' defeat left Genghis Khan as the sole ruler of the Mongol plains. All these confederations were united and became known as the ''Mongols''. From Temüjin to ''Genghis Khan'' By 1206 , Temüjin managed to unite the Merkit s, Naimans , Mongols , Uyghur s, Keraits , Tatars and disparate other smaller tribes under his rule through his charisma, dedication, and strong will. It was a monumental feat for the "Mongols" (collectively referred to as such), who had a long history of internecine dispute, economic hardship, and pressure from Chinese dynasties and empires. At a ''Kurultai'', a council of Mongol chiefs, he was acknowledged as "Khan" of the consolidated tribes and took the title ''Genghis Khan.'' The title Khagan was not conferred on Genghis until after his death, when his son and successor, Ögedei took the title for himself and extended it posthumously to his father. This unification of all confederations by Genghis Khan established peace between previously warring tribes. The population of whole Mongol Nation was around 200,000 people including Civilian s with approximately 70,000 Soldier s at the formation of unified Mongol Nation. (See below for possible meaning of his unique title) See Also: Mongols before Chinggis Khan Mongols MILITARY CAMPAIGNS First war with Western Xia The Mongol Empire created by Genghis Khan in 1206 was bordered to the south by the Jurchen Jin Dynasty , who then ruled North China, and to the west by the Xia . Temüjin organized his people and his State to prepare for future Battle with the Western Xia that was closer to the Mongol border. As well, the Jurchen had grown uncomfortable with the newly-unified Mongols for the first time. It may be that some trade routes ran through Mongol territory, and they might have feared the Mongols eventually would restrict the supply of goods coming from the Silk Road . On the other hand, Genghis Khan also was eager to take Revenge against the Jurchen for their long subjugation of the Mongols. For example, the Jurchen were known to stir up conflicts between Mongol tribes and had even executed some Mongol Khans. Eventually, Genghis Khan led his army against Western Xia and conquered it, despite initial difficulties in capturing its well-defended cities. By 1209 , the Tangut emperor acknowledged Genghis as overlord. In 1211 , Genghis set about bringing the Nüzhen (the founders of the Jin Dynasty) completely under his dominion. The Mongol army crossed the Great Wall Of China in 1213 , and in 1215 Genghis besieged, captured, and sacked the Jin capital of Yanjing (later known as Beijing ). This forced the Jin Emperor Xuan Zong to move his Capital South to Kaifeng . See Also: Yuan_Dynasty#Aspirations_to_the_Mandate_of_Heaven Conquest of the Kara-Khitan Khanate Meanwhile, Kuchlug , the deposed Khan of the Naiman Confederation , had fled west and usurped the Khanate of Kara-Khitan (also known as Kara Kitay), the western allies who had decided to side with Genghis. By this time the Mongol army was exhausted from ten years of continuous campaigning in China against the Tangut and the Rurzhen. Therefore, Genghis sent only two Tumen (20,000 soldiers) against Kuchlug, under a brilliant young general, Jebe known as "The Arrow". An internal revolt against Kuchlug was incited by Mongol agents, leaving the Naiman forces open for Jebe to overrun the country; Kuchlug's forces were defeated west of Kashgar . Kuchlug fled, but was hunted down by Jebe and executed, and Kara-Khitan was annexed by Genghis Khan. By 1218 , the Mongol Empire extended as far west as Lake Balkhash and it adjoined Khwarezmia , a Muslim state that reached to the Caspian Sea in the west and to the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea in the south. Invasion of Khwarezmid Empire See Also: Mongol invasion of Central Asia (1190–1220)]] After the defeat of the Kara-Khitais, the extensive Mongol Empire had a border with the Muslim state of Khwarezmia , governed by Shah Ala Ad-Din Muhammad . Genghis Khan saw the potential advantage in Khwarezmia as a commercial partner, and sent a 500-man Caravan to officially establish trade ties with Khwarezmia. However Inalchuq, the governor of the Khwarezmian city of Otrar , attacked the caravan that came from Mongolia, claiming that the caravan was a conspiracy against Khwarezmia. The governor later refused to make repayments for the looting of the caravan and murder of its members. Genghis Khan then sent a second group of ambassadors to meet the Shah himself. The shah had all the men shaved and all but one Behead ed. This was seen as an affront to Khan himself. This led Genghis Khan to attack the Khwarezmian Dynasty . The Mongols crossed the Tien Shan Mountains, coming into the Shah's empire. After compiling information from many sources Genghis Khan carefully prepared his army, which was divided into three groups. His son Jochi led the first division into the Northeast of Khwarezmia. The second division under Jebe marched secretly to the Southeast part of Khwarzemia to form, with the first division, a Pincer Attack on Samarkand . The third division under Genghis Khan and Tolui marched to the northwest and attacked Khwarzemia from that direction. The Shah's army were split by diverse internal disquisitions, and by the Shah's decision to divide his army into small groups concentrated in various cities — this fragmentation was decisive in Khwarezmia's defeats. The Shah's fearful attitude towards the Mongol army also did not help his army, and Genghis Khan and his generals succeeded in destroying Khwarizm. Tired and exhausted from the journey, the Mongols still won their first victory against the Khwarezmia army. The Mongol army quickly seized the town of Otrar , relying on superior strategy and tactics. Once he had conquered the city, Genghis killed many of the inhabitants and executed Inalchuq by pouring molten Silver into his ears and eyes, as retribution for the insult. According to stories, Khan diverted a river of Ala ad-Din Muhammad II of Khwarezm's birthplace, erasing it from the map. The Mongols' conquest of the capital was nothing short of brutal: the bodies of citizens and soldiers filled the trenches surrounding the city, allowing the Mongols to enter raping, pillaging and plundering homes and temples. In the end, the Shah fled rather than surrender. Genghis Khan charged Subutai and Jebe with hunting him down, giving them two years and 20,000 men. The Shah died under mysterious circumstances on a small island within his empire. By 1220 the Khwarezmid Empire was eradicated. After Samarkand fell, Bujara became the capital of Jorezm, while two Mongol generals advanced on other cities to the north and the south. Jorezm, the heir of Shah Jalal Al-Din and a brilliant strategist, who was supported enough by the town, battled the Mongols several times with his father's armies. However, internal disputes once again split his forces apart, and Jorezm was forced to flee Bujara after a devastating defeat. Genghis Khan selected his third son Ögedei as his successor before his army set out, and specified that subsequent Khans should be his direct descendants. Genghis Khan also left Muqali, one of his most trusted generals, as the supreme commander of all Mongol forces in Jin China. The Mongol armies then split into two component forces. Genghis led a division on a raid through Afghanistan and northern India , while another contingent, led by his generals Jebe and Subutai , marched through the Caucasus and Russia . Neither campaign added territory to the empire, but they pillaged settlements and defeated any armies they met that did not acknowledge Genghis as the rightful leader of the world. In 1225 both divisions returned to Mongolia. These invasions ultimately added Transoxiana and Persia to an already formidable empire. The attack on Eastern Europe , 11th century]] See Also: Battle of Kalka River See Also: Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria These invasions were the start of Mongol Invasion Of Rus and Mongol Invasion Of Europe , which started in 1223 . While Genghis gathered his forces in Persia and Armenia , a detached force of 20,000 troops, commanded by Jebe and Subutai , pushed deep into Armenia and Azerbaijan . The Mongols destroyed Georgian s, sacked the Genoese trade-fortress of Caffa in Crimea , and stayed over winter near the Black Sea . Heading home, Mongols assaulted the Kipchak s and were intercepted by the allied troops of Mstislav The Bold of Halych and Mstislav III Of Kiev , along with about 80,000 Kievan Rus' . Subutai sent emissaries to the Slavic Prince s calling for separate Peace , but the emissaries were executed. At the Battle Of Kalka River in 1223 , the Mongols defeated the larger Kievan force, capturing and killing six princes, including Mstislav of Kiev. Genghis Khan recalled the forces back to the Mongolia soon afterwards, and Jebe died on the road back to Samarkand. This famous cavalry expedition of Subutai and Jebe, in which they encircled the entire Caspian Sea defeating every single army in their path, remains unparalleled to this day. Second war with Western Xia and Jin Dynasty , Jin Empire (yellow), Song China (red) and Dali (purple) in 1142 .]] The Mongol Empire campaigned six times against the Tangut s in 1202 , 1207 , 1209 – 1210 , 1211 – 1213 , 1214 – 1219 and 1225 – 1226 . The Vassal emperor of the Tanguts ( Western Xia ) had refused to take part in the war against the Khwarezmid Empire . While Genghis was busy with the campaign in Persia against the Khwarezmid Empire, Tangut and Jin formed an alliance against the Mongols. In retaliation, Genghis prepared for the last war against the Tanguts and their alliance. In 1226 , Genghis began to attack the Tangut s. In February, he took Heisui , Ganzhou and Suzhou , and in the Autumn he took Xiliang -fu. One of the Tangut generals challenged the Mongols to a battle near Helanshan (''Helan'' means "great horse" in the northern dialect, ''shan'' means "mountain"). The Tangut armies were soundly defeated. In November, Genghis laid Siege to the Tangut city Lingzhou , and crossed the Yellow River and defeated the Tangut relief army. Genghis reportedly saw a line of five stars arranged in the sky, and interpreted it as an omen of his victory. In 1227 , Genghis attacked the Tangut capital, and continued to advance, seizing Lintiao -fu in February, Xining province and Xindu -fu in March, and Deshun province in April. At Deshun, the Tangut general Ma Jianlong put up a fierce resistance for several days and personally led charges against the invaders outside the city gate. Ma Jianlong later died from wounds received from arrows in battle. Genghis, after conquering Deshun, went to Liupanshan ( Qingshui County, Gansu Province) for shelter from the severe summer. The new Tangut emperor quickly surrendered to the Mongols. The Tanguts officially surrendered in 1227 , after having ruled for 189 years, beginning in 1038 . Tired of the constant betrayal of Tanguts, Genghis executed the emperor and his family. By this time, his advancing age had led Genghis to make preparations for his death. MONGOL EMPIRE in 1300-1400]] See Also: Mongol Empire Politics and economics See Also: Organization of state under Genghis Khan The Mongol Empire was governed by Civilian and Military Code , called the Yassa code created by Genghis Khan. Among nomads the Mongol Empire did not emphasize the importance of biological and cultural Ethnicity and Race in the administrative realm, instead absorbing based on Meritocracy . The exception was the role of Genghis Khan and his family. The Mongol Empire was therefore one of the most ethnically and culturally Diverse empires in history, as befitted its size. Many of the empire's nomadic inhabitants considered themselves ''Mongols'' in military and civilian life, including Turks , Mongols , Arabs , and others. There were to some degree ideals such as Meritocracy among the Mongols and allied nomadic people in Military and Civilian life. However sedentary peoples, and especially the Chinese, remained heavily discriminated against. There were Tax exemptions for Intellectual s like Teacher s and Doctor s. at the court of Genghis' Grandson Kublai Khan , c.1280.]] The Mongol Empire practiced Religious Tolerance to a large degree because it was generally indifferent to belief. The exception was when religious groups challenged the state. For example Ismaili Muslims that resisted the Mongols were exterminated. The Mongol Empire linked together the previously fractured Silk Road states under one system and became somewhat open to trade and cultural exchange. However, the Mongol conquests did lead to a collapse of many of the ancient trading cities of Central Asia that resisted invasion. Taxes were also heavy and conquered people were used as forced labor in those regions. Modern Mongolian historians say that towards the end of his life, Genghis attempted to create a ( Mongol Peace). Military , the design similar to the Mongol Bow , main and basic Weapon used by Mongol armies]] See Also: Military advances of Genghis Khan Genghis Khan made advances in Military disciplines, such as Mobility , Psychological Warfare , Intelligence , military Autonomy , and Tactics at the time Genghis Khan built a highly Efficient army with remarkable discipline, dedication, Loyalty and Military Intelligence compared to their enemies. More specifically, the Mongol Armies were known for their strict discipline, speed, good weapons, the mobility when mounted on their fast and tough Horse s and good intelligence compared to armies of sedentary population. In contrast to their enemies, almost all Mongols grew up on horses. Secondly Genghis Khan refused to divide his troops into different ethnic units, instead creating a sense of unity, and he punished even small infractions against discipline severely. He also divided his armies into a number of smaller groups based on the Decimal System in units of 10 s, taking advantage of the superb mobility of his mounted archers to attack their enemies on several Front s simultaneously. In addition Genghis Khan expected unwavering loyalty from his generals and gave them free rein in battles and wars. Muqali, a trusted general, was given command over Mongol forces over Jin Dynasty while Genghis Khan was fighting in Central Asia , and Subutai and Jebe were allowed to use any means to defeat Kievan Rus . Along with their incredible speed, fear-inducing slaughters and city burnings were used in greater degree to intimidate and diminish the morale of their opponents and in order to convince other cities and rulers to surrender without a fight. Mongol military also was successful in Siege Warfare and cutting resources for cities and towns by diverting rivers and sending flocking refugees. Another important aspect in the military Organization of Genghis Khan was the Communications and Supply route or Yam , borrowed from previous Chinese models, to which he himself dedicated a special attention in order to speed up Military Intelligence and support travelers. Division of the Empire into Khanates Before his death, Genghis Khan divided his . ]] Following are the Khanate s in the way in which Genghis Khan assigned after his death:
Genghis Khan's eldest son, Jochi, had received most of the distant Russia and Ruthenia . Because Jochi died before Genghis Khan, his territory was further split up into the Western White Horde (under Orda Khan ) and the Eastern Blue Horde , which under the Genghis Khan's grandson Batu Khan attacked Europe and crushed several armies before being summoned back by the news of Ögedei's death. In 1382 , these two Khanates were combined into the Kipchak Khanate , better known as the Golden Horde . After Genghis Khan , Ögedei Khan , son of Genghis Khan]] Contrary to popular belief, Genghis Khan didn't conquer all of the areas of Mongol Empire, but his sons and grandsons did. At the time of his death, Mongol Empire stretched from Caspian Sea to Sea Of Japan , while China wasn't conquered in full so as Russia and also attack on Central Europe didn't happen during his lifetime. The empire's expansion continued for a generation or more after Genghis's death in 1227 — indeed, under Genghis's successor Ögedei Khan the speed of expansion reached its peak. Mongol armies pushed into Persia, finished off the Xia and the remnants of the Khwarezmids, and came into conflict with the imperial Song Dynasty of China, starting a war that would last until 1279 and that would conclude with the Mongols' successful conquest of China. In the late 1230 s, the Mongols under Batu Khan started the Mongol Invasions Of Europe and Russia , reducing most of its principalities to vassalage, and pressed on into Central Europe. In 1241 Mongols under Subutai and Batu Khan defeated the last Polish-German and Hungarian armies at the Battle Of Legnica and the Battle Of Mohi . During the 1250 s, Genghis's grandson Hulegu Khan , operating from the Mongol base in Persia, destroyed the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad as well as the Cult Of The Assassins . He then attempted to move against the Mamluk Dynasty of Egypt, but was soundly defeated in the Battle Of Ayn Jalut , near Nazareth . Mongol armies attempted two unsuccessful Invasions Of Japan and three unsuccessful invasions of modern day Vietnam . See Also: Mongol invasions DEATH AND BURIAL ; at Genghis Khan's death]] During his last campaign with the Tangut Empire during which Genghis Khan was fighting with the Khwarezmid Empire , Genghis Khan died on August 18 , 1227 . The reason for his death is uncertain. Many assume he fell off his horse, due to old age and physical fatigue; some contemporary observers cited prophecies from his opponents. The Galician-Volhynian Chronicle alleges he was killed by the Tangut s. There are persistent Folktale s that a Tangut princess, to avenge her people and prevent her Rape , Castrated him with a hidden knife and that he never recovered. It is alleged that Genghis asked to be buried without markings. After he died, his body was returned to Mongolia and presumably to his birthplace in Hentiy Aymag , where many assume he is buried somewhere close to the Onon River . According to legend, the funeral escort killed anyone and anything across their path, to conceal where he was finally buried. The Genghis Khan Mausoleum is his memorial, but not his burial site. On October 6 , 2004 , "Genghis Khan's palace" was allegedly discovered, and that may make it possible to find his burial site. Folklore says that a river was diverted over his grave to make it impossible to find (The same manner of burial of Sumerian King Gilgamesh of Uruk.) Other tales state that his grave was stampeded over by many horses, over which trees were then planted. The burial site remains undiscovered. Genghis Khan left behind an army of more than 129,000 men. 28,000 were given to his various brothers and his sons, and Tolui, his youngest son, inherited more than 100,000 men. This force contained the bulk of the elite Mongolian Cavalry . This was done because by tradition, the youngest son inherits his father's property. Jochi , Chagatai , Ogedei and Kulan's son Gelejian received armies of 4000 men each. His mother and the descendants of his three brothers received 3000 men each. GENGHIS KHAN'S CHARACTER Simplicity It is not entirely clear what Genghis Khan's personality was truly like, but his personality and character were doubtlessly molded by the many hardships he faced when he was young, and in unifying the Mongol nation. Genghis appeared to fully embrace the Mongol people's Nomad ic way of life, and did not try to change their customs or beliefs. As he aged, he seemed to become increasingly aware of the consequences of numerous victories and expansion of the Mongol Empire, including the possibility that succeeding generations might choose to live a sedentary lifestyle. According to quotations attributed to him in his later years, he urged future leaders to follow the '' Yasa '', and to refrain from surrounding themselves with wealth and pleasure. He was known to share his wealth with his people and awarded subjects handsomely who participated in campaigns. Honesty and loyalty He seemed to value honesty and loyalty highly from his subjects. Genghis Khan put a lot of trust in his generals, such as Muqali, Jebe and Subudei and gave them free rein in battles and allowed them to make decisions on their own when they embarked on campaign on their own very far away from the Mongol Empire capital Kharakhorum . Yet traditional accounts of his life are marked by a series of betrayals and conspiracies. These include rifts with his early allies such as Jamuka and Wang Khan, problems with the most important Shaman and at the end of his life he was said to have been considering an attack against his son Jochi. There is little reason to believe all of these were genuine. This may suggest a degree of paranoia in Genghis Khan's personality based on his earlier experiences. Military strategy His Military Strategies showed a deep interest in gathering good Intelligence and understanding the Motivation s of his rivals. He seemed to be a quick study, adopting new technologies and ideas that he encountered. The ''Secret History'' makes it clear he was not physically courageous and even says he was afraid of dogs. Many Stories and Legend s claim that Genghis Khan always was in the front in battles but these may not be historically accurate. He seemed to have very little Tolerance for resistance against his rule and this rule persisted later on for later rulers like Ogedei Khan , Kublai Khan , etc. behaving the same way, which some people attribute to the fierce and harsh climates in Central Asian steppes. By others The chronicler Minhaj Al-Siraj Juzjani left a description of Genghis Khan, written when the Khan was in his later years: '' Khan was a man of tall stature, of vigorous build, robust in body, the hair on his face scanty and turned white, with cat's eyes, possessed of dedicated energy, discernment, genius, and understanding, awe-striking, a butcher, just, resolute, an overthrower of enemies, intrepid, sanguinary, and cruel.'' By himself Perhaps a rare insight into Genghis Khan's perspective of himself was recorded in a letter to the Taoist monk Ch'ang Ch'un. The letter was presumably not written by Genghis Khan himself, as tradition states that he was Illiterate , but rather, written by a Chinese person at a later point and recorded as his in the Chinese histories. A passage from the letter: ''Heaven has abandoned China owing to its haughtiness and extravagant luxury. But I, living in the northern wilderness, have not inordinate passions. I hate luxury and exercise moderation. I have only one coat and one food. I eat the same food and am dressed in the same tatters as my humble herdsmen. I consider the people my children, and take an interest in talented men as if they were my brothers. We always agree in our principles, and we are always united by mutual affection. At military exercises I am always in front, and in time of battle am never behind. In the space of seven years I have succeeded in accomplishing a great work, and uniting the whole world in one empire. (Bretschneider)'' PERCEPTIONS OF GENGHIS KHAN Genghis Khan as a hero Negative views of Genghis Khan are persistent, but historians and scientists are looking into positive aspects of Genghis Khan's conquests. Genghis Khan, successor Khans and Mongols are credited to bringing the Silk Route under one cohesive political environment. Theoretically this allowed increased Communication and trade between the West , Middle East and Asia by expanding the Horizon of all three areas. More recent sometimes historians point out that Genghis Khan instituted some levels of Meritocracy and was, by Christian or Islamic standards, quite tolerant of many religions under his rule. There were some that later claimed descent from Genghis Khan like Timur and therefore Babur that were successful conquerors in their own right. The Chinese have mixed feelings towards Genghis: although his successors completely conquered China (and in the course became Chinese themselves), there has been much Artwork and Literature praising him as a great military leader of genius. Genghis Khan himself was technically not Han Chinese originally, but he and his successors did fully unite China, eventually were assimilated by the Chinese culture, and left a significant, lasting, but questionable, imprint on Chinese political and social structures for subsequent generations. In Mongolia Genghis Khan is regarded by many modern observers as one of Mongolia 's greatest leaders. He was to a large extent responsible for the formation of Mongolia as a unified political and ethnic identity, and this is seen by some to balance the many acts of brutality for which he was also responsible. Mongol s themselves often feel that the historical record, written for the most part by non-Mongolian observers, is unfairly biased against him and exaggerates his assaults, barbarism, and butchery while it underplays the positive effect he had on the world, for example by founding the Mongol nation. He had great respect for Mongol tradition and provided stability for the Mongol nation at a time of great uncertainty. In the early 1990s, when Mongolia repudiated Communism and withdrew from the Russian bloc, Genghis became a symbol of the free nation's identity. Some Mongols call Mongolia , "Genghis Khan's Mongolia" or "Genghis' nation." Mongolians have given his name to many products, streets, buildings, and other places. Ulaanbaatar 's main International Airport , for example, is known as Chinggis Khaan International Airport . Recognitions Genghis Khan is recognized in number of large and popular publications and by other authors, which include the following:
Consequences of Mongol conquest of Baghdad in 1258 .]] There are many differing views on the amount of destruction Genghis Khan and his armies caused. The peoples who suffered the most during Genghis Khan's conquests, like the Persians and the Chinese , usually stress the negative aspects of the conquest and some modern scholars argue that their Historians exaggerate the numbers of deaths. However such historians produce virtually all the documents available to modern scholars and so it is hard to establish a firm basis for any alternative view. Casualties Genghis Khan generally preferred to offer opponents the chance to submit to his rule without a fight and become Vassal s by sending tribute and accepting residents, but was ruthless if he encountered any resistance. In such cases he would not give an alternative and would result in massive collective slaughter of the resisting cities' populations and destruction of their property by usually burning it to the ground after defeating their defense and armies with ease (e.g. Battle Of Baghdad ), leaving only the skilled engineers, artists as slaves, and any troops who submitted and incorporating them in the Mongol system to expand their manpower, while absorbing their technology, knowledge and skill as needed for future possible military campaigns against other enemies. There also were instances of mass slaughters even where there was no resistance, especially in Northern China where the vast majority of the population had long histories of accepting nomadic rulers. Genghis Khan's conquests were widely characterized by wholesale destruction on an unprecedented scale and radical changes in the Demographics of Asia by many Ancient Source s. For example, over much of Central Asia speakers of Iranian Languages were replaced by speakers of Turkic Languages . According to the works of Iranian historian Rashid Al-Din , the Mongols killed over 70,000 people in Merv and more than a million in Nishapur . China suffered a drastic decline in population during 13th and 14th century. For instance, before the Mongol invasion, a unified China had approximately 120 million inhabitants; after the complete conquest in 1279 , the census in 1300 showed it to have roughly 60 million people. How many of these deaths were attributable directly to Genghis Khan and his forces is unclear as are the highly generalized numbers themselves. On property and cultural treasures His campaigns in Northern China , Central Asia and the Middle East caused massive property destruction for those that Resisted his invasion, however there are no exact factual numbers available at this time. For example, the cities of Ray and Tus , the two largest and most populous cities in Iran at the time, both centres of Literature , Culture , Trade and commerce, were completely destroyed by order of Genghis Khan. Nishapur , Merv , Baghdad and Samarkand suffered similar destruction. There is a noticeable lack of Chinese literature that has survived from the Jin Dynasty due to the Mongol conquests. Modern descendants Zerjal et al {Link without Title} identified a Y-chromosomal Lineage present in about 8% of the men in a large region of Asia (or about 0.5% of the men in the world if extrapolated). The paper suggests that the pattern of variation within the lineage is consistent with a hypothesis that it originated in Mongolia about 1,000 years ago. Such a spread would be too rapid to have occurred by Diffusion , and must therefore be the result of Selection . The authors propose that the lineage is carried by likely male-line descendants of Genghis Khan, and that it has spread through social selection. In addition to the Khanates and other descendants, the Mughal royal family of India are also descended from Genghis Khan ( Babur 's mother was a descendant). NAME AND TITLE There are many theories for the origins of Temüjin's title; this uncertainty is fueled by the fact that later members of the Mongol Empire associated the name with the Mongol word for strength, ''ching'', though this does not fit the etymology. One theory about the etymology suggests the name stems from a palatalised version of the . {Link without Title} See Lister and Ratchnevsky, referenced below, for further reading. According to legend, Temüjin was named after one of the more powerful chiefs of a rival tribe which his father, Yesükhei, had recently defeated. The name "Temüjin" is believed to derive from the Mongolian word ''temur'', meaning iron. This name would imply skill as a blacksmith, and like any nomad of the time he was familiar, at least partially, with the working of iron and steel for horse-shoeing and weaponry. More likely, as there exists no evidence that has survived to indicate that Genghis Khan had any exceptional training or reputation as a blacksmith, the name indicated an implied lineage in a family once known as blacksmiths. The latter interpretation is supported by the names of Genghis Khan's siblings, Temulin and Temuge, which are derived from the same root word. SHORT TIMELINE
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