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CONTEMPORARY ANCIENT SOURCES The main source of information about the life and belief of Essenes is the detailed account contained in a work of the 1st century Jewish historiographer Josephus entitled The Jewish War written about 73-75 CE (''War'' 2.119-161) and his shorter description in his Antiquities finished some 20 years later (''Ant.'' 18.11 & 18-22). Claiming first hand knowledge (''Life'' §§10-11), he refers to them by the name ''Essenoi'' and lists them as the followers of one of the three "choices" in "Jewish Philosophy'" (''War'' 2.119) alongside the Pharisees and the Sadduccees . The only other known contemporary accounts about the Essenes are two similarly detailed ones by the Jewish philosopher Philo (fl. c. 20 BCE - c. 54 CE; ''Quod Omnis Probus Liber Sit'' XII.75-87, and the excerpt from his ''Hypothetica'' 11.1-18 preserved by Eusebius , ''Praep. Evang.'' Bk VIII), who, however, admits to not being quite certain of the Greek form of their name that he recalls as ''Essaioi'' (''Quod Omn. Prob.'' XII.75), the brief reference to them by the Roman Equestrian Pliny The Elder (fl. 23 CE - 79 CE; ''Natural History'', Bk 5.73) and the Holy Megillah, the Nasarean Bible of the Essene Way. The Dead Sea Scrolls , found in caves at Qumran , are widely but not universally believed to be the work of Essenes or to reflect Essene beliefs. See Below . NAME Josephus uses the name ''Essenes'' in his two main accounts (''War'' 2.119, 158, 160; ''Ant.'' 13.171-2) as well as in some other contexts ("an account of the Essenes", ''Ant.'' 13.298; "the gate of the Essenes", ''War'' 5.145; "Judas of the Essene race", ''Ant.'' 13.311, but some mss read here ''Essaion''; "holding the Essenes in honour", ''Ant.'' 15.372; "a certain Essene named Manaemus", ''Ant.'' 15.373; "to hold all Essenes in honour", ''Ant.'' 15.378; "the Essenes", ''Ant.'' 18.11 & 18; ''Life'' 10). In several places, however, Josephus has ''Essaios'', which is usually assumed to mean ''Essene'' ("Judas of the ''Essaios'' race", ''War'' I.78; "Simon of the ''Essaios'' race", ''War'' 2.113; "John the ''Essaios''", ''War'' 2.567; 3.11; "those who are called by us ''Essaioi''", ''Ant.'' 15.371; "Simon a man of the ''Essaios'' race", ''Ant.'' 17.346). Philo's usage is ''Essaioi'', although he admits this Greek form of the original name that according to his etymology signifies "holiness" to be inexact (''NH'' XII.75). Pliny's Latin text has ''Esseni''. LOCATION According to Josephus the Essenes had settled "not in one city" but "in large numbers in every town" (''War'' 2.124). Philo speaks of "more than four thousand" ''Essaioi'' living in "Palestinian Syria" (''Quod Omn. Prob.'' XII.75), more precisely, "in many cities of Judaea and in many villages and grouped in great societies of many members" (''Hyp.'' 11.1). Some modern scholars and archeologists have argued that Essenes inhabited the settlement at Qumran , a Plateau in the Judean Desert along the Dead Sea . While Pliny's location ("on the west side of the Dead Sea, away from the coast ... {Link without Title} the town of Engeda ") tends to be cited in support of this identification, there is as yet no conclusive proof for this hypothesis. Nevertheless, it has come to dominate the scholarly discussion and public perception of the Essenes. RULES, CUSTOMS, THEOLOGY AND BELIEFS The accounts by Josephus and Philo show that the Essenes (Philo: ''Essaioi'') led a strictly Celibate but Communal life − often compared by scholars to Christian Monastic living − although Josephus speaks also of another "''rank'' of Essenes" that did get married (''War'' 2.160-161). According to Josephus, they had customs and observances such as collective ownership (''War'' 2.122; ''Ant.'' 18.20), elected a leader to attend to the interests of them all whose orders they obeyed (''War'' 2.123, 134), were forbidden from Swearing oaths (''War'' 2.135) and Sacrificing Animals (Philo, §75), controlled their temper and served as channels of peace (''War'' 2.135), carried Weapon s only as protection against robbers (''War'' 2.125), had no Slaves but served each other (''Ant.'' 18.21) and, as a result of communal ownership, did not engage in Trading (''War'' 2.127). Both Josephus and Philo have lengthy accounts of their communal meetings, meals and religious celebrations. From what has been deduced, the food of the Essenes was not allowed to be altered (by being cooked, for instance); and they may have been strict vegetarians, eating mostly bread, wild roots and fruits. After a total of three years probation (''War'' 2.137-138), newly joining members would take an oath that included the commitment to practise piety towards the Deity and righteousness towards humanity, to maintain a pure life-style, to abstain from criminal and immoral activities, to transmit their rules uncorrupted and to preserve the books of the Essenes and the names of the Angels (''War'' 2.139-142). Their theology included belief in the immortality of the soul and that they would receive their souls back after death (''War'' 2.153-158, ''Ant.'' 18.18). SCHOLARLY DISCUSSION The Essenes are discussed in detail by Josephus and Philo . Many scholars believe that the community at Qumran that allegedly produced the Dead Sea Scrolls was an offshoot of the Essenes; however, this theory has been disputed by Norman Golb and other scholars. Some suggest that Jesus of Nazareth was an Essene, and that Christianity evolved from this sect of Judaism, with which it shared many ideas and symbols. According to Martin A. Larson , the now misunderstood Essenes were Jewish Pythagoreans who lived as monks. As vegetarian celibates in self-reliant communities who shunned marriage and family, they preached a coming war with the Sons of Darkness. As the Sons of Light, this reflected a separate influence from Zoroastrianism via their parent ideology of Pythagoreanism. According to Larson, both the Essenes and Pythagoreans resembled ''thiasoi'', or cult units of the Orphic mysteries. John The Baptist is widely regarded to be a prime example of an Essene who had left the communal life (see ''Ant.'' 18.116-119), and it is thought they aspired to emulate their own founding ''Teacher of Righteousness'' who was crucified. Another issue is the relationship between the ''Essaioi'' and Philo's '' Therapeutae '' and ''Therapeutrides'' (see ''De Vita Contemplativa''). It may be argued that he regarded the ''Therapeutae'' as a contemplative branch of the ''Essaioi'' who, he said, pursued an active life (''Vita Cont.'' I.1). MODERN AND CONTEMPORARY ESSENES Several groups claim spiritual descent from the ancient Essenes and describe themselves as Essenes. Some of these groups believe that the canon of the Bible , and even some translations of books considered "canonical," were changed by various hands to censor some of their beliefs (such as Transmigration and the Feminine Aspect Of Divinity ) Vegetarianism and the practice of slavery. These groups use the Nasarean Bible of the Essene Way, the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Nag Hammadhi Library manuscripts and other gospels recently found as basis for much of their beliefs. The Order Of Nazorean Essenes is an Oregon based religious movement which seeks to revive Essenes and Manichean traditions. ESSENES IN FICTION The Essenes are an important part of H. Rider Haggard 's ''Pearl-Maiden: A Tale of the Fall of Jerusalem''. {Link without Title} REFERENCES
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