| Depleted Uranium |
Website Links For Depleted Uranium |
Information AboutDepleted Uranium |
| CATEGORIES ABOUT DEPLETED URANIUM | |
| uranium | |
| nuclear materials | |
| uranium, depleted | |
| ammunition | |
| alloys | |
| vehicle armour | |
| weapons | |
| gulf war syndrome | |
| SHOPPER'S DELIGHT | |
|
Depleted uranium (DU) is Uranium which has a reduced proportion of the isotope Uranium-235 . It is mostly made up of Uranium-238 . The names '''Q-metal''', '''depletalloy''', and '''D-38''', once applied to depleted uranium, have fallen into disuse. SOURCES Depleted uranium is a byproduct of the enriching of natural uranium for use in . As a Toxic and Radioactive waste product that requires long term storage as low level Nuclear Waste , depleted uranium is costly to keep but inexpensive to obtain from its keepers. Its extremely high density, only slightly less than that of Tungsten and its low cost make it attractive for a variety of uses. However, its Corrosive properties are such that it will Burn Spontaneously When Small Particles Are Exposed To Air . {Link without Title} Since, like all heavy metals, it is toxic and as it is also radioactive, DU processing facilities need to monitor and filter airborne particles. HISTORY Depleted uranium was first stored in stockpiles in the 1940's when the U.S. and USSR began their Nuclear Weapon s and Nuclear Power programs. While it is quite possible to design civilian power reactors with unenriched fuel, only about 10% of reactors ever built utilize it, and both nuclear weapons production and submarine reactors require the concentrated isotope. Originally DU was conserved in the hope that more efficient enrichment techniques would allow further extraction of the fissile isotope; however those hopes did not materialize. In the 1970s, the Pentagon reported that the Soviet military had developed armor plating for Warsaw Pact tanks that NATO ammunition couldn't penetrate. The Pentagon began searching for material to make harder bullets. After testing various metals, ordnance researchers settled on depleted uranium. DU was useful in ammunition not only because of its unique physical properties and effectiveness, but also because it was cheap and readily available. Tungsten , the only other candidate, had to be sourced from China. With DU stockpiles estimated to be more than 500,000 tons, the financial burden of housing this amount of low-level radioactive waste was very apparent. It was therefore more economical to use depleted uranium rather than storing it . Thus from the late 1970s, the US , the Soviet Union , Britain and France , began converting their stockpiles of depleted uranium into Kinetic Energy Penetrator s. Photographic evidence of destroyed equipment suggests that DU was first used during the 1973 Arab-Israeli War . Various written reports cite information that was obtained as a consequence of that use.Doug Rokke Depleted Uranium: Uses and Hazards (PDF) an updated version of the paper presented in the British House of Commons on December 16, 1999 PRODUCTION AND AVAILABILITY Natural Uranium metal contains about 0.71% U-235 , 99.28% U-238 , and about 0.0054% U-234 . Depleted uranium contains only 0.2% to 0.4% U-235, the rest of the U - 235 having been removed and concentrated into Enriched Uranium through the process of Isotope Separation . This process, which separates the different isotopes of uranium, leaves large amounts of U-238 uranium. It is this residue that is called depleted uranium. Producing 1 kg of 5% enriched uranium requires 11.8 kg of natural uranium, and leaves about 10.8 kg of depleted uranium with only 0.3% U-235 remaining. The contain less than 0.3 percent 235U (AEPI, 1995). In actuality, DoD uses only DU that contains approximately 0.2 percent 235U (AEPI, 1995). ::::::::World Depleted Uranium Inventory ::::: ''Source:'' WISE Uranium Project NUCLEAR ENERGY APPLICATIONS In a Nuclear Reactor , Uranium-238 can be used to breed plutonium, which itself can be used in a nuclear weapon or as a reactor fuel source. In fact, in a typical nuclear reactor, up to a third of the generated power does come from the fission of Plutonium-239 (not supplied as a fuel to the reactor, but Transmute d from Uranium-238). Breeder reactors Depleted uranium is not usable directly as nuclear fuel. Depleted uranium can be used as a source material for creating the element Plutonium . Breeder Reactor s carry out such a process of Transmutation to convert "fertile" isotopes such as U-238 into fissile Plutonium . It has been estimated that there is anywhere from 10,000 to five billion years worth of Uranium-238 for use in these power plants Breeder technology has been used in several reactors [http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf08.htm . As of December 2005, the only breeder reactor producing power is BN-600 {Link without Title} in Beloyarsk, Russia. The electricity output of BN-600 is 600 megawatts. Russia has planned to build another unit, BN-800, at Beloyarsk nuclear power plant. Also, Japan's Monju breeder reactor is planned for restart, having been shut down since 1995, and both China and India have announced intentions to build breeder reactors. The Clean And Environmentally Safe Advanced Reactor (CAESAR), a nuclear reactor concept that would use steam as a moderator to control delayed neutrons, if feasible, would be able to burn DU fuel rods once the reactor is started with LEU . This design is still in the early stages of development, and skeptics question whether it is actually workable. Radiation shielding Depleted Uranium is used as a radiation shield — its Alpha Radiation is easily stopped by the non-radioactive casing of the shielding and the uranium's high atomic weight and high number of electrons is highly effective in absorbing Gamma Radiation and x-rays. However, DU is not as effective as ordinary water for stopping fast neutrons. Both metallic depleted uranium and depleted Uranium Dioxide are being used as materials for Radiation Shielding . Depleted uranium is about five times better as a gamma ray shield than Lead , so a shield with the same effectivity can be packed into a thinner layer. DUCRETE , a concrete made with uranium dioxide aggregate instead of gravel, is being investigated as a material for Dry Cask Storage systems to store Radioactive Waste . Downblending The opposite of enriching is Downblending . Surplus highly enriched uranium can be downblended with depleted uranium to turn it into low enriched uranium and thus suitable for use in commercial Nuclear Fuel . Depleted uranium is also used (with recycled plutonium) from weapons stockpiles for making Mixed Oxide Fuel (MOX) which is now being redirected to become reactor fuel. This dilution, also called downblending, means that any nation or group that acquired the finished fuel would have to repeat the (very expensive and complex) enrichment and separation processes before assembling a weapon. MILITARY APPLICATIONS Depleted uranium is very Dense ; at 19050 kg/m³, it is 70% denser than Lead . Thus a given weight of it has a smaller diameter than an equivalent lead projectile, with less Aerodynamic Drag and deeper Penetration due to a higher pressure at point of impact. DU projectile ordnance is often incendiary because of its Pyrophoric property. DU munitions, in the form of ordnance, tank, and naval artillery rounds, are deployed by the armed forces of the United States , United Kingdom , Israel , France , China , Russia , Pakistan , and others. DU munitions are manufactured in 18 countries. It had been widely assumed that the type used by the US in its weapons was the uncontaminated variety, until 2001 when UN scientists found evidence of contaminated DU in the fieldKatherine Rizzo Plutonium traces found in munitions tracked to processing plants Associated Press 25 January 2001. The U.S. Army admitted the problem the following day, and began to correct the issue. {Link without Title} {Link without Title} {Link without Title} {Link without Title} Most military use of depleted uranium has been as 30 mm and smaller ordnance, primarily the 30mm PGU-14/B armour-piercing incendiary round from and Air Force . 25 mm DU rounds have been used in the M242 gun mounted on the U.S. Army's Bradley Fighting Vehicle and LAV-AT . The U.S. Marine Corps uses DU in the 25 mm PGU-20 round fired by the GAU-12 Equalizer cannon of the AV-8B Harrier , and also in the 20 mm M197 gun mounted on AH-1 Helicopter Gunships . ] Armor plate Because of its high density, depleted uranium can also be used in tank armor, sandwiched between sheets of steel armor plate. For instance, some late-production M1A1HA And M1A2 Abrams tanks built after 1998 have DU reinforcement as part of its armor plating in the front of the hull and the front of the turret and there is a program to upgrade the rest. Nuclear weapons Most modern Nuclear Weapon s utilize depleted uranium as a "tamper" material (see Nuclear Weapon Design ). A tamper which surrounds a fissile core works to reflect neutrons and add Inertia to the compression of the Plutonium charge. As such, it increases the efficiency of the weapon and reduces the amount of Critical Mass required. In thermonuclear weapons using a Teller-Ulam Design (by which the energy of a fission bomb is used to start a fusion reaction), a depleted uranium "tamper" is also used around the Fusion fuel. In the process of detonation, the high flux of very energetic Neutrons from the resulting fusion reaction causes the U-238 tamper to fission and adds energy to the yield of the weapon. Such weapons are referred to as ''fission-fusion-fission'' weapons after the three consecutive stages of the explosion. The larger portion of the total explosive yield in this design comes from the final fission stage fueled by DU, producing enormous amounts of radioactive fission products. For example, 77% of the 10.4 megaton yield of the Ivy Mike thermonuclear test in 1952 came from fast fission of the DU tamper. Because DU has no critical mass, it can be added to thermonuclear bombs in almost unlimited quantity. The 1961 Soviet test of Tsar Bomba produced "only" 50 megatons (still the largest man-made explosion in history), over 90% from fusion, because the DU final stage was replaced with lead. Had DU been used, the yield could have been as much as 100 megatons, and would have produced fallout equivalent to one third of the global total at that time. Incendiary projectile munitions Another use of depleted uranium is in and depleted uranium, the latter in designated alloys known as Staballoy s. Staballoy s are metal alloys of depleted uranium with a very small proportion of other metals, usually Titanium or Molybdenum . One formulation has a composition of 99.25% by weight of depleted uranium and 0.75% by weight of titanium. Another variant can have 3.5% by weight of titanium. Staballoys are about twice as dense as Lead and are designed for use in Kinetic Energy Penetrator Armor-piercing Munitions . The US Army uses DU in an alloy with around 3.5% Titanium . Staballoys, along with lower raw material costs, have the advantage of being easy to melt and cast into shape; a difficult and expensive process for tungsten. Depleted uranium is favoured for the penetrator because it is self-sharpening and Pyrophoric . On impact with a hard target, such as an armoured vehicle, the nose of the rod fractures in such a way that it remains sharp. The impact and subsequent release of heat energy causes it to disintegrate to dust and burn when it reaches air because of its Pyrophoric properties (compare to Ferrocerium ). After a disintegrated DU penetrator reaches the interior of an armored vehicle, it explodes, often igniting ammunition and fuel, incinerating the crew, and causing the vehicle to explode. DU is used by the U.S. Army in 120 mm or 105 mm cannons employed on the M1 Abrams and M60A3 Tank s. The Russian military has used DU munitions in Tank main gun ammunition since the late 1970s, mostly for the 115 mm guns in the T-62 tank and the 125 mm guns in the T-64 , T-72 , T-80 , and T-90 tanks. The DU content in various munitions is 180 g in 20 mm projectiles, 200 g in 25 mm ones, 280g in 30 mm, 3.5 kg in 105 mm, and 4.5 kg in 120 mm penetrators. It is used in the form of Staballoy . The US Navy used DU in its 20 mm Phalanx CIWS guns, but switched in the late 1990s to armor-piercing Tungsten for this application, because of the fire risk associated with stray pyrophoric rounds. DU was used during the mid-1990s in the U.S. to make 9mm and similar caliber Armor Piercing bullets, grenades, Cluster Bomb s, and Mines , but those applications have been discontinued, according to Alliant Techsystems . Whether or not other nations still make such use of DU is difficult to determine. Some activists have called for a ban on the use of this material, but thus far military analysts judge that its benefits outweigh its costs. CIVILIAN APPLICATIONS Civilian applications for depleted uranium are fairly limited and are typically unrelated to its radioactive properties. It primarily finds application as ballast because of its high density. Such applications include Sailboat keels, as Counterweight s and sinker bars in Oil Drill s, Gyroscope rotors, and in other places where there is a need to place a weight that occupies as little space as possible. Other relatively minor consumer product uses have included: the manufacture of pigments and glazes; incorporation into dental porcelain used for false teeth to simulate the fluorescence of natural teeth; and in uranium-bearing reagents used in chemistry laboratories. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission regulations at 10 CFR 40.25 establish mandatory licensing for the use of depleted uranium contained in industrial products or devices for mass-volume applications. Other jurisdictions have similar regulations. Trim weights in Aircraft Aircraft may also contain depleted uranium trim weights (a and McDonnell-Douglas discontinued using DU counterweights in the 1980s. Catalysts Uranium oxides are known to have high efficiency and long-term stability when used to destroy Volatile Organic Compound s (VOCs) when compared with some of the commercial Catalyst s, such as Precious Metal s, TiO2 , and Co3O4 catalysts. Much research is being done in this area, DU being favoured for the uranium component due to its low radioactivity. (''Hutchings, G. J., et. al., AUranium-Oxide-Based Catalysts for the Destruction of Volatile Chloro-Organic compounds,@ Nature, 384, pp. 341B343, 1996''.) Semiconductors See Also: Uranium dioxide Some uranium oxides, namely Uranium Dioxide , have Semiconductor properties similar to other Semiconductor Material s. Its Band Gap lies at around 1.3 eV. Its Seebeck Coefficient is very high, making it a promising material for Thermoelectric applications. It is also capable of withstanding high temperatures. The low level of Alpha Radiation produced in the material is a cause of electronic noise, causing multiple Single-event Upset s. Schottky Diode s made of uranium oxide and a P-n-p Transistor of Uranium Dioxide were successfully demonstrated in a laboratory. [http://web.ead.anl.gov/uranium/mgmtuses/duuses/semiconductors/index.cfm Pigments Uranium was widely used as a coloring matter for Porcelain and Glass in the 19th Century . The total production of uranium pigments was about 260 tonnes (with an uranium contents of ~70%), 150 tonnes of which were used for Uranium Glass . The practice was believed to be a matter of history, however in 1999 concentrations of 10% depleted uranium were found in "jaune no.17" a yellow enamel powder that was being produced in France by Cristallerie de Saint-Paul, a manufacturer of enamel pigments. The depleted uranium used in the powder was sold by Cogéma 's Pierrelatte facility. Cogema has since confirmed that it has made a decision to stop the sale of depleted uranium to producers of enamel and glass. {Link without Title} Forklift counterweight proposals s would usher in design concepts not previously available. The reduction in overall length when applied to the right-angle stacking ability of the forklift (the amount of space required to make a 90° turn) would result in a 10% increase in usable warehouse floor space. HEALTH CONCERNS Soluble uranium salts are toxic. They cause proven reproductive, neurological, and immunological harm in mammals. In large doses they cause kidney damage. Soluble uranium salts are excreted in the urine but some of it does accumulate in lungs, bones, and soft tissues. (Many uranium compounds are partially soluble, and some are insoluble.) The World Health Organisation's daily "tolerated intake" of soluble uranium salts for the general public is 0.5 μg/kg body weight (or 35 μg for a 70 kg adult): exposure at this level is not thought to lead to any significant kidney damage. However, this measure has not been designed to address damage to the reproductive organs. The chemical toxicity of soluble uranium salts is about a million times greater than their radiological toxicity (Miller, ''et al.'' 2002.) The danger of exposure to depleted uranium combustion products has received widespread publicity because of the use of DU munitions in the 1991 . The long-term effect on people living in areas where DU munitions were used, has also caused some concern. Like all hexavalent uranium compounds, Uranium Trioxide is hazardous to inhale, to ingest, and through skin contact. It is a poisonous, radioactive substance, which, if inhaled, may cause shortness of breath, coughing, acute arterial lesions, and changes in the chromosomes of White Blood Cell s and Gonads leading to Congenital Malformations . In 2001, Doctors at the Serb-run hospital in Kosovska Mitrovica say the number of patients suffering from malignant diseases has increased by 200% since 1998 In the same year, The World Health Organization said there has been no reported increase in cancer among the civilian population in Kosovo [http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0101/07/sun.07.html . Similar findings come from Bosnia[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/1118876.stm][http://www.aimpress.ch/dyn/trae/archive/data/200101/10126-002-trae-sar.htm] Safety and environmental issues About 95% of the depleted uranium produced till now is stored as Uranium Hexafluoride , (D)UF6, in steel cylinders in open air yards close to enrichment plants. Each cylinder contains up to 12.7 tonnes (or 14 US tons) of UF6. In the U.S. alone, 560,000 tonnes of depleted UF6 had accumulated by 1993. In 2005, 686,500 tonnes in 57,122 storage cylinders were located near Portsmouth, Ohio, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, and Paducah, Kentucky. [http://web.ead.anl.gov/uranium/documents/index.cfm The long-term storage of DUF6 presents environmental, health, and safety risks because of its chemical instability. When UF6 is exposed to moist air, it reacts with the water in the air to produce UO2F2 (uranyl fluoride) and HF (hydrogen fluoride) both of which are highly soluble and toxic. Storage cylinders must be regularly inspected for signs of corrosion and leaks. The estimated life time of the steel cylinders is measured in decades. [http://www.ieer.org/sdafiles/vol_5/5-2/deararj.html] There have been several accidents involving uranium hexafluoride in the United States. The vulnerability of DUF6 storage cylinders to terrorist attack is apparently not the subject of public reports. However, the U.S. government has been converting DUF6 to solid uranium oxides for disposal. [http://web.ead.anl.gov/uranium/faq/storage/faq22.cfm Such disposal of the entire DUF6 inventory could cost anywhere from 15 to 450 million dollars. [http://web.ead.anl.gov/uranium/faq/mgmt/faq27.cfm] Inhalation exposure risks Note: while this section is about the health concerns of depleted uranium, all isotopes and compounds of uranium are toxic to various degrees and the information here applies to most of them. Health effects of DU are affected by the amount of exposure and whether the exposure was internal or external. Uranium gets into the body in three ways: Inhalation , Ingestion , and contamination by embedded fragments or Shrapnel . Properties such as phase (e.g. particulate or gaseous), oxidation state (e.g. metallic or ceramic), and the solubility of uranium and its compounds affect how much is Absorbed , Spread Round The Body , Eliminated and the toxic effects that result. For example, hexavalent uranium(VI) compounds such as uranyl nitrate are much more toxic than metallic uranium. (See «Gmelin Handbuch der anorganischen Chemie» 8th edition, English translation, ''Gmelin Handbook of Inorganic Chemistry,'' vol. U-A7 (1982) pp. 300-322.) Projectile DU munitions can cause substantial inhalation exposure risks. {Link without Title} Those risks have been associated with a number of health concerns, some of which are controversial. While early scientific studies sometimes found no link with increases in the rate of birth defects and usually found no link between depleted uranium and cancer, newer studies have found such links, and have explained the birth defect links. While there is no direct proof that uranium causes birth defects in humans, it induces them in several other species of mammals. Human epidemiological evidence is consistent with an increased risk of birth defects in the offspring of persons exposed to DU. Environmental groups and others have expressed concern about the health effects of depleted uranium[http://www.guardian.co.uk/uranium/story/0,7369,994981,00.html , and there is significant debate over the matter. Some people have raised concerns about the use of this material, particularly in munitions, because of its proven mutagenicity teratogenicity [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12539863&dopt=Abstract , in mice, and neurotoxicity [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15681127 , and its suspected carcinogenic potential. Depleted uranium remains radioactive for an exceedingly long time with a Half-life of approximately 4.5 billion years. It is also Toxic like Lead and other Heavy Metals . The primary radiological hazards associated with this material are alpha emissions, however the long half-life indicates that depleted uranium is only weakly radioactive. All isotopes and compounds of uranium are toxic. Such issues are of concern to civilians and troops operating wherever depleted uranium is used, and to those who live there afterwards, or who breathe the air or drink the water from that place [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvrad.2004.05.015]. Studies showing detrimental health effects have shown the following:
: "The most important concern is the potential for future Groundwater Contamination by corroding penetrators (ammunition tips made out of DU). The munition tips recovered by the UNEP team had already decreased in mass by 10-15% in this way. This Rapid Corrosion speed underlines the importance of monitoring the water quality at the DU sites on an annual basis." Because DU is a chemical toxicant heavy metal with nephrotoxic (kidney-damaging) [http://www.gulflink.osd.mil/medsearch/Cancer/DOD122.shtml properties, there is a connection between uranium exposure and a variety of illnesses The chemical toxicological hazard posed by uranium dwarfs its radiological hazard because it is only weakly radioactive. In 2002, A.C. Miller, ''et al.,'' of the U.S. Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute, found that the chemical generation of hydroxyl radicals by depleted uranium ''in vitro'' exceeds radiolytic generation by one million-fold[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12121782&dopt=Abstract . Hydroxyl radicals damage DNA and other cellular structures, leading to cancer, immune system damage in white blood cells, birth defects in gonocytes (testes), and other serious health problems. (See Halliwell and Gutteridge, eds. (1999) ''Free Radicals in Biology and Medicine,'' 3rd ed., Oxford University Press.) In 2005, uranium metalworkers at a Bethlehem plant near Buffalo, New York , exposed to frequent occupational uranium inhalation risks, were found to have the same patterns of symptoms and illness as Gulf War Syndrome victims[http://www.factsofwny.org/buff12162004.htm],[http://villagevoice.com/news/0525,lombardi,65154,5.html]. A report written by an Irish petro-chemical engineer stated that in Iraq, the death rate per 1000 Iraqi children under 5 years of age increased from 2.3 in 1989 to 16.6 in 1993, and cases of lymphoblastic leukaemia more than quadrupled. (K. Rirchard (1998) ''Does Iraq's depleted uranium pose a health risk?'' for more details specifically on the controversy over the use of depleted uranium in the Persian Gulf War .) Several sources have attributed the increase in the rate of birth defects in the children of combat veterans and 15,000 control veterans found that the Gulf War veterans were 1.8 (fathers) to 2.8 (mothers) times more likely to have children with birth defects {Link without Title} . In a study of U.K. troops, "Overall, the risk of any malformation among pregnancies reported by men was 50% higher in Gulf War Veterans (GWV) compared with Non-GWVs". The conclusion of the study stated ''" We found no evidence for a link between paternal deployment to the Gulf war and increased risk of stillbirth, chromosomal malformations, or congenital syndromes. Associations were found between fathers' service in the Gulf war and increased risk of miscarriage and less well-defined malformations, but these findings need to be interpreted with caution as such outcomes are susceptible to recall bias. The finding of a possible relationship with renal anomalies requires further investigation. There was no evidence of an association between risk of miscarriage and mothers' service in the gulf."'' {Link without Title} . After repeated requests, the Naval Health Research Center has refused to release the trend information from the Birth And Infant Health Registry concerning these elevated levels of birth defects. Birth defects recorded among Iraqi civilians, and U.S. and U.K. troops show similar accelerating patterns. Early studies of depleted uranium aerosol exposure assumed that uranium combustion product particles would quickly settle out of the air and thus could not affect populations more than a few kilometers from target areas[http://www.health-physics.com/pt/re/healthphys/abstract.00004032-200304000-00014.htm , and that such particles, if inhaled, would remain undissolved in the lung for a great length of time and thus could be detected in urine but those studies ignored ion accumulation in tissues including gonocytes (testes [http://dx.doi.org/10.1191/0748233701th111oa ) and white blood cells [http://www.cerrie.org/committee_papers/INFO_9-H.pdf], but virtually no residual presence in urine other than what might be present from coincident particulate exposure. By contrast, other studies have shown that DU ammunition has no measurable detrimental health effects, either in the short or long term. The International Atomic Energy Agency reported in 2003 that, "based on credible scientific evidence, there is no proven link between DU exposure and increases in human cancers or other significant health or environmental impacts," although "Like other heavy metals, DU is potentially poisonous. In sufficient amounts, if DU is ingested or inhaled it can be harmful because of its chemical toxicity. High concentration could cause kidney damage." {Link without Title} In October, 1992, an El Al Boeing 747-F cargo aircraft crashed in a suburb of Amsterdam . After reports of local residents and rescue workers complaining of heath issues related to the release of depleted uranium used as counterbalance in the plane, authorities began an epidemiological study in 2000 of those believed to be effected by the accident. The study concluded that because exposure levels were so low, it was highly improbable that exposure to depleted uranium was the cause of the reported health complaints. The primary health impact of depleted uranium relates to its chemical toxicity as a heavy metal rather than to its radioactivity, which is relatively low. In fact, there is some evidence to suggest that low-level radiation, such as that from uranium, is beneficial to human beings. [http://hps.org/publicinformation/ate/q299.html [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10453435&query_hl=6&itool=pubmed_docsum] As with any heavy metal, the overall hazard depends on the amount of exposure. The symptoms of Gulf War Syndrome can be explained by uranium combustion product inhalation exposure. Until the extent of uranyl oxide gas vapor production is known, the amount of uranium in exposure victims bodies will only be measurable through invasive techniques. Metallic uranium(0) shrapnel exposure and uranium(IV) oxide exposure is qualitativly and toxicologically different than hexavalent uranium(VI) uranyl compound exposure. A two year study headed by Al Marshall of Lockheed Martin -funded Sandia National Laboratories analyzed some health effects associated with accidental exposure to depleted uranium during the 1991 Gulf War, but did not consider any nonradiological reproductive toxicity, developmental toxicity, or immuniological effects. Marshall’s study concluded that the reports of serious health risks from DU exposure are not supported by veteran medical statistics and were consistent with earlier studies form Los Alamos and the New England Journal of Medicine {Link without Title} . The U.S. has admitted that there have been over 100 "friendly fire" DU victims, and an unknown number of inhalation exposure victims. Uranium combustion product inhalation exposure can result in substantial harm. No formal comparison can be made between the tactical advantages and the strategic drawbacks until the congenital malformation incident rate trend is known. In early 2004, the U.K. Pensions Appeal Tribunal Service began attributing birth defect claims from February 1991 Gulf War combat veterans to depleted uranium poisoning {Link without Title} , {Link without Title} . Karyotyping measures exposure Exposure to Teratogens may be measured by Karyotype tests such as those most often provided for Biopsy and Amniocentesis . Soluble and most partially-soluble Uranyl compounds affect Gonadal chromosomes in proportion to the extent that they affect White Blood Cell chromosomes. [http://www.desertconcerns.org/mission.html Uranyl poisoning causes immune system disorders and may cause cancer. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16393663&query_hl=2&itool=pubmed_docsum] Because of the several-year delay in observed increases of teratogenisis, information about prognosis is currently uncertain. Trend information is not favorable to the afflicted, but may level out or decrease. The probability of decrease is similar to the probability of superexponential growth. Many have recommended that the use of incendiary uranium munitions be avoided. Urine isotope ratio tests Some have suggested that uranyl compound exposure may be reliably classified with isotope ratios. However, the different isotopes translocate at different rates. The more-soluble Uranyl compounds accumulate in cellular nuclei, where they are unlikely to return to the bloodstream or urine. Chromosomal karyotyping is the correct diagnosis procedure. LEGAL STATUS IN WEAPONS In 1996 the and kill soldiers through kinetic energy. In 1996 and 1997, the Sub-Commission On Prevention Of Discrimination And Protection Of Minorities of the United Nations Human Rights Commission Citizen Inspectors Foiled in Search for DU Weapons , passed two motions Depleted Uranium UN Resolutions the first in 1996[http://www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf/0811fcbd0b9f6bd58025667300306dea/887c730868a70a758025665700548a00 Sub-Commission resolution 1996/16] and the second in 1997 Sub-Commission resolution 1997/36 . They listed weapons mass destruction, or weapons with indiscriminate effect, or of a nature to cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering and urged all states to curb the production and the spread of such weapons. Included in the list was weaponry containing depleted uranium. The committee authorized, a working paper, in the context of human rights and humanitarian norms, of the weapons. The requested UN working paper was delivered in 2002 E/CN.4/Sub.2/2002/38 Human rights and weapons of mass destruction, or with indiscriminate effect, or of a nature to cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering ( backup ) "''In its decision 2001/36 of 16 August 2001, the Sub‑Commission, recalling its resolutions 1997/36 and 1997/37 of 28 August 1997, authorized Mr. Y.K.J. Yeung Sik Yuen to prepare, without financial implications, in the context of human rights and humanitarian norms, the working paper originally assigned to Ms. Forero Ucros.''" by Y.K.J. Yeung Sik Yuen in accordance with ; the Charter Of The United Nations ; the Genocide Convention ; the United Nations Convention Against Torture ; the Geneva Conventions including Protocol I ; the Convention On Conventional Weapons of 1980; and the Chemical Weapons Convention . Yeung Sik Yuen writes in Paragraph 133 under the title "''Legal compliance of weapons containing DU as a new weapon''": :Annex II to the Convention On The Physical Protection Of Nuclear Material 1980 (which became operative on 8 February 1997) classifies DU as a category II nuclear material. Storage and transport rules are set down for that category which indicates that DU is considered sufficiently “hot” and dangerous to warrant these protections. But since weapons containing DU are relatively new weapons no treaty exists yet to regulate, limit or prohibit its use. The legality or illegality of DU weapons must therefore be tested by recourse to the general rules governing the use of weapons under humanitarian and human rights law which have already been analysed in Part I of this paper, and more particularly at paragraph 35 which states that parties to Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 have an obligation to ascertain that new weapons do not violate the laws and customs of war or any other international law. As mentioned, the ICJ considers this rule binding customary humanitarian law. (Emphasis added). In 2001, January 14 , 2001. In April 2002, a paper titled "''Environmental Crimes in Military Actions and the Internal Criminal Court (ICC)''" written by Joe Sills ''et al'' of the American Council for the UN University, for the U.S Army Environmental Policy Institute and published Joe Sills ''et al'' '' Environmental Crimes in Military Actions and the Internal Criminal Court (ICC) '' (PDF) (http://72.14.203.104/search?q=cache:cNSJQtVQwgIJ:www.amicc.org/docs/Env_Crime_%2520ICC_12Jul2.pdf HTML) of American Council for the UN University, April 2002 "examine {Link without Title} a range of perceptions within the UN Secretariat, selected UN Missions and relevant academic and non-governmental organizations (NGO) communities about the possibilities of environmental damage during military action becoming a criminal liability for military personnel and/or their contractors in the impending International Criminal Court (ICC)." They point out that The Rome Statute has one paragraph that refers to environmental damage as a war crime: Article 8(2)(b)(iv): "Intentionally launching an attack in the knowledge that such attack will cause ... long-term and severe damage to the natural environment which would be clearly excessive in relation to the concrete and direct overall military advantage anticipated." In relation to Carla Del Ponte's comments the reports states: :Considerable attention was given by the media to the decision by Carla Del Ponte, the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Tribunal on Yugoslavia, not to investigate further allegations that NATO had committed war crimes during its air campaign in Kosovo in 1999. ... :According to an interviewee close to the work of the Tribunal, Louise Arbour , Ms. Del Ponte’s predecessor as Prosecutor, was approached by six “international law types” who tried to persuade her that the NATO bombing had violated international humanitarian law; one of their allegations was that there had been crimes against the environment. The Former Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia) had charged that the NATO bombing had constituted “environmental terrorism.” Ms. Arbour created a small, internal committee, made up of staff lawyers, to assess these allegations. Their findings The Final Report to the Prosecutor by the Committee Established to Review the NATO Bombing Campaign Against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia: Use of Depleted Uranium Projectiles were accepted and endorsed by Ms. Del Ponte, who succeeded Ms. Arbour. :While this procedure fell short of a formal investigation by the Prosecutor, the committee concluded that there had been no substantive violation of international law, and no “relevant” environmental damage (i.e., in violation of Protocol 2). :According to an interviewee, use of depleted uranium shells was a specific concern of the assessment. (Depleted uranium is extremely dense and thus increases penetration of the target. Upon impact, they can pulverize into a possibly toxic, slightly radioactive dust.) :While concern over the use of depleted uranium in Kosovo is certain to be raised again, an interviewee noted that while the use of these shells may be deplorable, in the eyes of some, it is not a war crime or a violation of international law to use uranium shells , as far as the ad hoc tribunals were concerned. For either of the two tribunals to have jurisdiction, their usage would have to be banned by the Geneva Convention, which is not the case. The "Report of the World Health Organization Depleted Uranium Mission to Kosovo, 22 to 31 January 2001,"Draft text () 22 to 31January 2001 does not give evidence that the alleged egregious impacts occurred; it does explain that DU poses heavy-metal toxic hazards and weak radiation hazards. DU is not described as an indiscriminately dangerous weapon that would meet the standards of danger and criminality ascribed to chemical and biological weapons. (Emphasis added) IN POPULAR CULTURE A Punk Rock band Anti-Flag released a song entitled "Depleted Uranium is a War Crime" on their 2006 album For Blood And Empire . FOOTNOTES EXTERNAL LINKS Scientific bodies
United Nations
Scientific reports
Other publications
|