Information AboutApophony |
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In Linguistics , apophony (also '''ablaut''', '''gradation''', '''alternation''', '''internal modification''', '''stem modification''', '''stem alternation''', '''replacive morphology''', '''stem mutation''', '''internal inflection''') is the alternation of sounds within a word that indicates grammatical information (often Inflectional ). DESCRIPTION Apophony is exemplified in English as the ''internal'' vowel alternations that produce such related words as
The difference in these vowels marks variously a difference in Tense or Aspect (e.g. ''sing/sang/sung''), Transitivity (''rise/raise''), Part Of Speech (''sing/song'', ''bind/band''), or Grammatical Number (''goose/geese''). Similarly, there are consonant alternations which are also used grammatically:
That these sound alternations function grammatically can be seen as they are often equivalent to grammatical Suffix es (an ''external modification''). Compare the following: The vowel alternation between ''i'' and ''a'' indicates a difference between present and past tense in the pair ''sing/sang''. Here the past tense is indicated by the vowel ''a'' just as the past tense is indicated on the verb ''jump'' with the past tense suffix ''-ed''. Likewise, the plural suffix ''-s'' on the word ''books'' has the same grammatical function as the presence of the vowel ''ee'' in the word ''geese'' (where ''ee'' alternates with ''oo'' in the pair ''goose/geese''). Most instances of apophony develop historically from changes due to Phonological Assimilation that are later Grammaticalized (or morphologized) when the environment causing the assimilation is lost. Such is the case with English ''goose/geese'' and ''belief/believe''. TYPES OF APOPHONY Apophony may involve various types of alternations, including Vowel s, Consonant s, Prosodic elements (such as Tone , Syllable Length ), and even smaller features, such as Nasality (on vowels). The sound alternations may be used Inflectionally or Derivationally . The particular function of a given alternation will depend on the language. Vowel apophony (ablaut) Apophony often involves vowels. Indo-European Ablaut (also commonly called Indo-European ''vowel gradation'') is very well known. The English example previously cited above demonstrates vowel ablaut. Another example is from Dinka : : (Bauer 2003:35) The vowel alternation may involve more than just a change in vowel quality. In Athabascan languages, such as Navajo , verbs have series of stems where the vowel alternates (sometimes with an added Suffix ) indicating a different tense-aspect. Navajo vowel ablaut, depending on the verb, may be a change in vowel, Vowel Length , Nasality , and/or Tone . For example, the verb stem ''-kaah/-ką́'' "to handle an open container" has a total of 16 combinations of the 5 modes and 4 aspects, resulting in 7 different verb stem forms (i.e. ''-kaah'', ''-kááh'', ''-kaał'', ''-kááł'', ''-ka’'', ''-ká'', ''-ką́''). Another verb stem ''-géésh/-gizh'' "to cut" has a different set of alternations and mode-aspect combinations, resulting in 3 different forms (i.e. ''-géésh'', ''-gizh'', ''-gish''): Prosodic apophony Various prosodic elements, such as tone, syllable length, and Stress , may be found in alternations. For example, Vietnamese has the following tone alternations which are used derivationally: :(Nguyễn 1997:42-44) Albanian uses different vowel lengths to indicate number and Grammatical Gender on nouns: :(Asher 1994:1719) English has alternating stress patterns that indicate whether related words are nouns (first syllable stressed) or verbs (second syllable stressed): Prosodic alternations are sometimes analyzed as not as a type of apophony but rather as prosodic Affix es, which are known, variously, as ''suprafixes'', ''superfixes'', or ''simulfixes''. Consonant apophony (mutation) Consonant alternation is commonly known as Consonant Mutation . Bemba indicates Causative verbs through alternation of the stem-final consonant. Here the alternation involves Spirantization and Palatalization : : (Kula 2000:174) Celtic Languages are well-known for their initial consonant mutations. Stem alternations and other morphological processes Stem modifications (i.e. apophony) may co-occur with other morphological processes, such as Affixation . An example of this is in the formation of plural nouns in German : Here the singular/plural distinction is indicated through ablaut and additionally by a suffix ''-er'' in the plural form. English also displays similar forms with a ''-ren'' suffix in the plural and a ''-en'' suffix in the past participle forms along with the internal vowel alternation: A more complicated example comes from Chickasaw where the postive/negative distinction in verbs displays vowel ablaut along with Prefixation (''ak-'') and Infixation (''-'-''): VOWEL ALTERNATION IN INDO-EUROPEAN In Indo-European linguistics, ablaut is the vowel alternation that produces such related words as s'''i'''ng, s'''a'''ng, s'''u'''ng, and s'''o'''ng. The difference in the vowels results from the alternation (in the Proto-Indo-European Language ) of the vowel ''e'' with the vowel ''o'' or with no vowel. For a more detailed explanation see Indo-European Ablaut . To cite a few other examples of Indo-European ablaut, English has a certain class of Verbs (i.e. Strong Verbs ) in which the Vowel changes to indicate a different grammatical Tense - Aspect . As the examples above show, a change in the vowel of the verb stem creates a different verb form. (Note that some of the verbs also have a .) For a more detailed explanation of how strong verbs are formed in English and related languages, see West Germanic Strong Verb . In Indo-European linguistics, umlaut is the vowel alternation that produces such related words as f'''oo'''t and f'''ee'''t or t'''e'''ll and t'''o'''ld. The difference in the vowels results from the influence (in Proto-Germanic or a later Germanic language) of an ''i'' or ''y'' (which has since been lost) on the vowel which (in these examples) becomes ''e''. For a more detailed explanation see Germanic Umlaut or I-mutation . To cite another example of umlaut, some English Weak Verbs show umlaut in the present tense. A-mutation and U-mutation are processes analogous to umlaut but involving the influence of an ''a'' (or other non-high vowel) or ''u'' respectively instead of an ''i''. Note that in Indo-European historical linguistics the terms ''ablaut'' and ''umlaut'' refer to different phenomena. They are not interchangeable. The same terms are also used in linguistics to generally refer to analogous processes as described in the Ablaut Vs. Umlaut section below. APOPHONY VS. TRANSFIXATION (ROOT-AND-PATTERN) The Nonconcatenative Root-and-pattern Morphology of the Afro-Asiatic Languages is sometimes described in terms of apophony. The alternation patterns in many of these languages is quite extensive involving vowels and consonant Gemination (i.e. doubled consonants). The alternations below are of Modern Standard Arabic (the symbol indicates gemination on the preceding consonant): For other examples, see Archaic Plurals In Amharic , Broken Plural , Triconsonantal Root . Other analyses of these languages consider the patterns not to be sound alternations, but rather discontinuous roots with discontinuous affixes, known as ''transfixes'' (also ''simulfixes'' or ''suprafixes''). Some theoretical perspectives call up the notion of Morphological Template s or Morpheme "skeletons". Note that it would also be possible to analyze English in this way as well, where the alternation of ''goose/geese'' could be explained as a basic discontinuous root ''g-se'' that is filled out with an Infix ''-oo-'' "(singular)" or ''-ee-'' "(plural)". Many would consider this type of analysis for English to be less desirable as this type of infixal morphology is not very prevalent throughout English and the morphemes ''-oo-'' and ''-ee-'' would be exceedingly rare. REPLACIVE MORPHEMES & APOPHONY Another analytical perspective on sound alternations treats the phenomena not as merely alternation but rather a "replacive" morpheme that replaces part of a word. In this analysis, the alternation between ''goose/geese'' may be thought of as ''goose'' being the basic form where ''-ee-'' is a replacive morpheme that is substituted for ''oo''. : ''goose'' → ''g-ee-se'' This usage of the term ''morpheme'' (which is actually describing a replacement process, and not a true morpheme), however, is more in keeping with Item-and-Process models of morphology instead of Item-and-Arrangement models. (See Morphology (linguistics) for further discussion of morphological models.) ABLAUT VS. UMLAUT The Germanic scholars who coined the terms ''ablaut'' and '' Umlaut '' in the 19th century used them to distinguish two types of vowel alternation patterns with differing origins and differing reflexes in the modern languages. In this usage, ''umlaut'' is a specific case of vowel alternation that has developed from a historical instance of regressive Vowel Harmony . Indo-European ''ablaut'' is a different vowel alternation of uncertain origin. In purely Descriptive (synchronic) terms, Germanic umlaut is a regular system that always involves vowel fronting, whereas in the modern languages ''ablaut'' appears to have no regularity. This traditional distinction is retained by Historical (diachronic) Linguists , and is particularly important in the context of Indo-European evolution. It is rather less important for descriptive studies, where for most purposes the vowel alternation in ''foot/feet'' is analogous to that in ''sing/sang/sung''. However, the regularity of Germanic ''umlaut'' means that this distinction remains standard in textbooks for learners of German, Dutch and Scandinavian languages. Later linguists have broadened the meaning of ''ablaut'' to refer to vowel alternation generally, and of ''umlaut'' to refer also to other types and instances of regressive vowel harmony. When the terminology is used in this more inclusive way, ''umlaut'' is considered a sub-set of ablaut. Ambiguity can of course be avoided by using alternative terms (''apophany'', ''gradation'', ''alternation'', ''internal modification'') for the broader sense of the word. ABLAUT-MOTIVATED COMPOUNDING ''Ablaut reduplication'' or '' Ablaut-motivated Compounding '' is a type of Word Formation of "expressives" in English (such as Onomatopoeia ). Examples of these include:
Here the words are formed by a Reduplication of a base and an alternation of the internal vowel. (See English Reduplication ). SEE ALSO BIBLIOGRAPHY
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