Aids Epidemic


	ICD10	B24
	ICD9

is a symbol for solidarity with HIV-positive people and those living with AIDS.]]

	Author	Marx, J L title=New disease baffles medical community
	Journal	Science year=1982 pages=618-621 volume=217 issue=4560 id=

HIV is transmitted through direct contact of a or Vaginal ) Sex ; Blood Transfusion ; contaminated needles; exchange between mother and infant during Pregnancy , Childbirth , or Breastfeeding ; or other exposure to one of the above bodily fluids.

	Author	Gao, F, Bailes, E, Robertson, D L, Chen, Y, Rodenburg, C M, Michael, S F, Cummins, L B, Arthur, L O, Peeters, M, Shaw, G M, Sharp, P M and Hahn, B H
	Title	Origin of HIV-1 in the Chimpanzee Pan troglodytes troglodytes
	Journal	Nature year=1999 pages=436-441 volume=397 issue=6718 id=

Author UNAIDS publisher= year= 2005
Url http://wwwunaidsorg/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_enpdf
Title AIDS epidemic update, 2005 accessdate=2006-01-17

Author UNAIDS publisher= year= 2005
Url http://wwwunaidsorg/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_enpdf
Title AIDS epidemic update, 2005 accessdate=2006-01-17

Author Palella, F J Jr, Delaney, K M, Moorman, A C, Loveless, M O, Fuhrer, J, Satten, G A, Aschman and D J, Holmberg, S D
Title Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection HIV Outpatient Study Investigators
Journal N Engl J Med year=1998 pages=853-860 volume=338 issue=13 id=

INFECTION BY HIV

of HIV-1 budding from cultured Lymphocyte .]]
AIDS is the most severe manifestation of infection with HIV. HIV is a Retrovirus that primarily infects vital components of the human Immune System such as CD4+ T Cell s, Macrophage s and Dendritic Cell s. It directly and indirectly destroys CD4+ T Cell s. As CD4+ T cells are required for the proper functioning of the immune system, when HIV kills CD4+ T cells so that there are less than 200 CD4+ T cells per µl blood, Cellular Immunity is lost, leading to AIDS. Acute HIV infection progresses over time to clinical latent HIV infection and then to early symptomatic HIV infection and later, to AIDS, which is identified on the basis of the amount of CD4+ T cells in the blood and the presence of certain infections.

	Author	Morgan, D, Mahe, C, Mayanja, B, Okongo, J M, Lubega, R and Whitworth, J A
	Title	HIV-1 infection in rural Africa: is there a difference in median time to AIDS and survival compared with that in industrialized countries
	Journal	AIDS year=2002 pages=597-632 volume=16 issue=4 id=

Author Clerici, M, Balotta, C, Meroni, L, Ferrario, E, Riva, C, Trabattoni, D, Ridolfo, A, Villa, M, Shearer, GM, Moroni, M and Galli, M
Title Type 1 cytokine production and low prevalence of viral isolation correlate with long-term non progression in HIV infection
Journal AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses year=1996 pages=1053-1061 volume=12 issue=11

Author Morgan, D, Mahe, C, Mayanja, B and Whitworth, J A
Title Progression to symptomatic disease in people infected with HIV-1 in rural Uganda: prospective cohort study
Journal BMJ year=2002 pages=193-196 volume=324 issue=7331

Author Morgan, D, Mahe, C, Mayanja, B, Okongo, J M, Lubega, R and Whitworth, J A
Title HIV-1 infection in rural Africa: is there a difference in median time to AIDS and survival compared with that in industrialized countries
Journal AIDS year=2002 pages=597-632 volume=16 issue=4

Author Gendelman, H E, Phelps, W, Feigenbaum, L, Ostrove, J M, Adachi, A, Howley, P M, Khoury, G, Ginsberg, H S and Martin, M A
Title Transactivation of the human immunodeficiency virus long terminal repeat sequences by DNA viruses
Journal Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A year=1986 pages=9759-9763 volume=83 issue=24

Author Bentwich, Z, Kalinkovich, A and Weisman, Z
Title Immune activation is a dominant factor in the pathogenesis of African AIDS
Journal Immunol Today year=1995 pages=187-191 volume=16 issue=4

Author Tang, J and Kaslow, R A
Title The impact of host genetics on HIV infection and disease progression in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy
Journal AIDS year=2003 pages=S51-S60 volume=17 issue=Suppl 4

Author Quiñones-Mateu, M E, Mas, A, Lain de Lera, T, Soriano, V, Alcami, J, Lederman, M M and Domingo, E
Title LTR and tat variability of HIV-1 isolates from patients with divergent rates of disease progression
Journal Virus Research year=1998 pages=11-20 volume=57 issue=1

Author Campbell, G R, Pasquier, E, Watkins, J, Bourgarel-Rey, V, Peyrot, V, Esquieu, D, Barbier, P, de Mareuil, J, Braguer, D, Kaleebu, P, Yirrell, D L and Loret E P
Title The glutamine-rich region of the HIV-1 Tat protein is involved in T-cell apoptosis
Journal J Biol Chem year=2004 pages=48197-48204 volume=279 issue=46

Author Kaleebu P, French N, Mahe C, Yirrell D, Watera C, Lyagoba F, Nakiyingi J, Rutebemberwa A, Morgan D, Weber J, Gilks C, Whitworth J title=Effect of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) type 1 envelope subtypes A and D on disease progression in a large cohort of HIV-1-positive persons in Uganda journal=J Infect Dis year=2002 pages=1244-1250 volume=185 issue=9

DIAGNOSIS

Since June 18 , 1981 , many definitions have been developed for epidemiological surveillance such as the Bangui Definition and the 1994 Expanded World Health Organization AIDS Case Definition . However, clinical staging of patients was not an intended use for these systems as they are neither sensitive nor specific. In developing countries, the World Health Organization s (WHO) staging system for HIV infection and disease, using clinical and laboratory data, is used and in developed countries, the Centers For Disease Control (CDC) Classification System is used.

WHO Disease Staging System for HIV Infection and Disease

See Also: WHO Disease Staging System for HIV Infection and Disease

	Author	World Health Organization
	Title	Interim proposal for a WHO staging system for HIV infection and disease
	Journal	WHO Wkly Epidem Rec year=1990 pages=221-228 volume=65 issue=29

: ''Stage I:'' HIV disease is asymptomatic and not categorized as AIDS
: ''Stage II:'' include minor mucocutaneous manifestations and recurrent upper respiratory tract infections
: ''Stage III:'' includes unexplained chronic diarrhoea for longer than a month, severe bacterial infections and pulmonary tuberculosis
: ''Stage IV'' includes Toxoplasmosis of the brain, Candidiasis of the oesophagus, trachea, bronchi or lungs and Kaposi's Sarcoma ; these diseases are indicators of AIDS.

CDC Classification System for HIV Infection

See Also: CDC Classification System for HIV Infection

	Cite Web Author	CDC publisher=CDC year=1992
	Url	http://wwwcdcgov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00018871htm
	Title	1993 Revised Classification System for HIV Infection and Expanded Surveillance Case Definition for AIDS Among Adolescents and Adults
	Accessdate	2006-02-09

HIV test

See Also: HIV test

Approximately half of those infected with HIV do not know their HIV status until their AIDS diagnosis with a HIV test. The screening of donor blood and blood products used in medicine and medical research is by this test. Typical HIV tests, including the HIV enzyme immunoassay and the Western blot assay, detect HIV antibodies in serum, plasma, oral fluid, dried blood spot or urine of patients. Commercially available tests to detect other HIV antigens, HIV-RNA, and HIV-DNA in order to detect HIV infection prior to the development of detectable antibodies are available. However, for the diagnosis of HIV infection these assays are not specifically approved, but are nonetheless routinely used in developed countries.

SYMPTOMS AND COMPLICATIONS

	Author	Holmes, C B, Losina, E, Walensky, R P, Yazdanpanah, Y, Freedberg, K A
	Title	Review of human immunodeficiency virus type 1-related opportunistic infections in sub-Saharan Africa
	Journal	Clin Infect Dis year=2003 pages=656-662 volume=36 issue=5

	Author	Guss, D A
	Title	The acquired immune deficiency syndrome: an overview for the emergency physician, Part 1
	Journal	J Emerg Med year=1994 pages=375-384 volume=12 issue=3

Author Guss, D A
Title The acquired immune deficiency syndrome: an overview for the emergency physician, Part 2
Journal J Emerg Med year=1994 pages=491-497 volume=12 issue=4

Author Schneider, M F, Gange, S J, Williams, C M, Anastos, K, Greenblatt, R M, Kingsley, L, Detels, R, and Munoz, A
Title Patterns of the hazard of death after AIDS through the evolution of antiretroviral therapy: 1984-2004
Journal AIDS year=2005 pages=2009-2018 volume=19 issue=17

Author Morgan, D, Mahe, C, Mayanja, B, Okongo, J M, Lubega, R and Whitworth, J A
Title HIV-1 infection in rural Africa: is there a difference in median time to AIDS and survival compared with that in industrialized countries
Journal AIDS year=2002 pages=597-632 volume=16 issue=4

Author Lawn, S D
Title AIDS in Africa: the impact of coinfections on the pathogenesis of HIV-1 infection
Journal J Infect Dis year=2004 pages=1-12 volume=48 issue=1

	Author	Clerici, M, Balotta, C, Meroni, L, Ferrario, E, Riva, C, Trabattoni, D, Ridolfo, A, Villa, M, Shearer, GM, Moroni, M and Galli, M
	Title	Type 1 cytokine production and low prevalence of viral isolation correlate with long-term non progression in HIV infection
	Journal	AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses year=1996 pages=1053-1061 volume=12 issue=11

Author Morgan, D, Mahe, C, Mayanja, B and Whitworth, J A
Title Progression to symptomatic disease in people infected with HIV-1 in rural Uganda: prospective cohort study
Journal BMJ year=2002 pages=193-196 volume=324 issue=7331

Author Tang, J and Kaslow, R A
Title The impact of host genetics on HIV infection and disease progression in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy
Journal AIDS year=2003 pages=S51-S60 volume=17 issue=Suppl 4

Author Morgan, D, Mahe, C, Mayanja, B, Okongo, J M, Lubega, R and Whitworth, J A
Title HIV-1 infection in rural Africa: is there a difference in median time to AIDS and survival compared with that in industrialized countries
Journal AIDS year=2002 pages=597-632 volume=16 issue=4

Author Lawn, S D
Title AIDS in Africa: the impact of coinfections on the pathogenesis of HIV-1 infection
Journal J Infect Dis year=2004 pages=1-12 volume=48 issue=1

Author Campbell, G R, Pasquier, E, Watkins, J, Bourgarel-Rey, V, Peyrot, V, Esquieu, D, Barbier, P, de Mareuil, J, Braguer, D, Kaleebu, P, Yirrell, D L and Loret E P
Title The glutamine-rich region of the HIV-1 Tat protein is involved in T-cell apoptosis
Journal J Biol Chem year=2004 pages=48197-48204 volume=279 issue=46

Author Campbell, G R, Watkins, J D, Esquieu, D, Pasquier, E, Loret, E P and Spector, S A
Title The C terminus of HIV-1 Tat modulates the extent of CD178-mediated apoptosis of T cells
Journal J Biol Chem year=2005 pages=38376-39382 volume=280 issue=46

Author Senkaali, D, Muwonge, R, Morgan, D, Yirrell, D, Whitworth, J and Kaleebu, P
Title The relationship between HIV type 1 disease progression and V3 serotype in a rural Ugandan cohort
Journal AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses year=2005 pages=932-937 volume=20 issue=9

Major pulmonary illnesses

	Author	Feldman, C
	Title	Pneumonia associated with HIV infection
	Journal	Curr Opin Infect Dis year=2005 pages=165-170 volume=18 issue=2

	Author	Decker, C F and Lazarus, A
	Title	Tuberculosis and HIV infection How to safely treat both disorders concurrently
	Journal	Postgrad Med year=2000 pages=57-60, 65-68 volume=108 issue=2

Major gastro-intestinal illnesses

	Author	Zaidi, S A and Cervia, J S
	Title	Diagnosis and management of infectious esophagitis associated with human immunodeficiency virus infection
	Journal	J Int Assoc Physicians AIDS Care (Chic Ill) year=2002 pages=53-62 volume=1 issue=2

	Author	Guerrant, R L, Hughes, J M, Lima, N L, Crane, J
	Title	Diarrhea in developed and developing countries: magnitude, special settings, and etiologies
	Journal	Rev Infect Dis year=1990 pages=S41-S50 volume=12 issue=Suppl 1

Major neurological illnesses

	Author	Luft, B J and Chua, A
	Title	Central Nervous System Toxoplasmosis in HIV Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Therapy
	Journal	Curr Infect Dis Rep year=2000 pages=358-362 volume=2 issue=4

	Author	Sadler, M and Nelson, M R
	Title	Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in HIV
	Journal	Int J STD AIDS year=1997 pages=351-357 volume=8 issue=6

	Author	Gray, F, Adle-Biassette, H, Chrétien, F, Lorin de la Grandmaison, G, Force, G, Keohane, C
	Title	Neuropathology and neurodegeneration in human immunodeficiency virus infection Pathogenesis of HIV-induced lesions of the brain, correlations with HIV-associated disorders and modifications according to treatments
	Journal	Clin Neuropathol year=2001 pages=146-155 volume=20 issue=4

Author Grant, I, Sacktor, H, and McArthur, J
Year 2005
Title The Neurology of AIDS
Chapter HIV neurocognitive disorders
Chapterurl http://wwwhnrcucsdedu/publications_pdf/2005grant1pdf
Editor H E Gendelman, I Grant, I Everall, S A Lipton, and S Swindells (ed)
Edition 2nd
Pages 357-373
Publisher Oxford University Press
Location London, UK
Id ISBN 0198526105

Author Satishchandra, P, Nalini, A, Gourie-Devi, M, Khanna, N, Santosh, V, Ravi, V, Desai, A, Chandramuki, A, Jayakumar, P N, and Shankar, S K
Title Profile of neurologic disorders associated with HIV/AIDS from Bangalore, south India (1989-96)
Journal Indian J Med Res year=2000 pages=14-23 volume=11 issue=

Author Wadia, R S, Pujari, S N, Kothari, S, Udhar, M, Kulkarni, S, Bhagat, S, and Nanivadekar, A
Title Neurological manifestations of HIV disease
Journal J Assoc Physicians India year=2001 pages=343-348 volume=49 issue=

Cryptococcal meningitis is an infection of the Meninges (the membrane covering the brain and spinal cord) by the fungus '' Cryptococcus neoformans''. It can cause fevers, headache, fatigue, nausea, and vomiting. Patients may also develop seizures and confusion. If untreated, it can be lethal.

Major HIV-associated malignancies

	Author	Boshoff, C and Weiss, R
	Title	AIDS-related malignancies
	Journal	Nat Rev Cancer year=2002 pages=373-382 volume=2 issue=5

Author Yarchoan, R, Tosatom G and Littlem R F
Title Therapy insight: AIDS-related malignancies - the influence of antiviral therapy on pathogenesis and management
Journal Nat Clin Pract Oncol year=2005 pages=406-415 volume=2 issue=8

Kaposi's sarcoma (KS) is the most common tumour in HIV-infected patients. A gammaherpesvirus called Kaposi's Sarcoma-associated Herpes Virus (KSHV) causes it. The appearance of this tumour in young gay men in 1981 was one of the first signals of the AIDS epidemic. It often appears as purplish nodules on the skin, but can affect other organs, especially the mouth, gastrointestinal tract, and lungs.

High-grade B cell lymphomas such as Burkitt's Lymphoma , Burkitt's-like lymphoma, and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), including primary central nervous system lymphoma, have substantially increased incidence in HIV-infected patients and often portend a poor prognosis. In some cases these lymphomas are AIDS-defining. Primary Effusion Lymphoma is less common. Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) or KSHV cause many of these lymphomas.

Cervical Cancer in HIV-infected women is considered AIDS-defining. It is caused by Human Papillomavirus (HPV).

	Author	Bonnet, F, Lewden, C, May, T, Heripret, L, Jougla, E, Bevilacqua, S, Costagliola, D, Salmon, D, Chene, G and Morlat, P
	Title	Malignancy-related causes of death in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy
	Journal	Cancer year=2004 pages=317-324 volume=101 issue=2

Other opportunistic infections

	Author	Skoulidis, F, Morgan, M S, and MacLeod, K M
	Title	Penicillium marneffei: a pathogen on our doorstep
	Journal	J R Soc Med year=2004 pages=394-396 volume=97 issue=2

TRANSMISSION AND PREVENTION

Style

"width: 100px"'''Exposure Route'''

Style

"width: 150px"'''Estimated infections per 10,000 exposures to an infected source'''

Cite Journal Author

Donegan, E, Stuart, M, Niland, J C, Sacks, H S, Azen, S P, Dietrich, S L, Faucett, C, Fletcher, M A, Kleinman, S H, Operskalski, E A, et al title=Infection with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) among recipients of antibody-positive blood donations journal=Ann Intern Med year=1990 pages=733-739 volume=113 issue=10

Cite Journal Author

Coovadia, H title=Antiretroviral agents&mdashhow best to protect infants from HIV and save their mothers from AIDS journal=N Engl J Med year=2004 pages=289-292 volume=351 issue=3 id=

Cite Journal Author

Kaplan, E H and Heimer, R title=HIV incidence among New Haven needle exchange participants: updated estimates from syringe tracking and testing data journal=J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol year=1995 pages=175-176 volume=10 issue=2

Cite Journal Author

European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV title=Comparison of female to male and male to female transmission of HIV in 563 stable couples journal=BMJ year=1992 pages=809-813 volume=304 issue=6830 id=

Cite Journal Author

Varghese, B, Maher, J E, Peterman, T A, Branson, B M and Steketee, R W title=Reducing the risk of sexual HIV transmission: quantifying the per-act risk for HIV on the basis of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use journal=Sex Transm Dis year=2002 pages=38-43 volume=29 issue=1 id=

Cite Journal Author

Bell, D M title=Occupational risk of human immunodeficiency virus infection in healthcare workers: an overview journal=Am J Med year=1997 pages=9-15 volume=102 issue=5B id=

Cite Journal Author

Cite Journal Author Varghese, B, Maher, J E, Peterman, T A, Branson, B M and Steketee, R W title=Reducing the risk of sexual HIV transmission: quantifying the per-act risk for HIV on the basis of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use journal=Sex Transm Dis year=2002 pages=38-43 volume=29 issue=1 id=

Cite Journal Author Leynaert, B, Downs, A M and de Vincenzi, I title=Heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus: variability of infectivity throughout the course of infection European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV journal=Am J Epidemiol year=1998 pages=88-96 volume=148 issue=1 id=

Cite Journal Author

- Bgcolor "#efefef"
! Colspan 5 style="border-right:0px" assuming no condom use § Source refers to oral intercourse performed on a man

	Cite Journal Author	Rothenberg, R B, Scarlett, M, del Rio, C, Reznik, D and O'Daniels, C
	Title	Oral transmission of HIV journal=AIDS year=1998 pages=2095-2105 volume=12 issue=16

	Author	Laga, M, Nzila, N, Goeman, J
	Title	The interrelationship of sexually transmitted diseases and HIV infection: implications for the control of both epidemics in Africa
	Journal	AIDS year=1991 pages=S55-S63 volume=5 issue=Suppl 1

	Author	Laga, M, Nzila, N, Goeman, J
	Title	The interrelationship of sexually transmitted diseases and HIV infection: implications for the control of both epidemics in Africa
	Journal	AIDS year=1991 pages=S55-S63 volume=5 issue=Suppl 1

Author

Tovanabutra, S, Robison, V, Wongtrakul, J, Sennum, S, Suriyanon, V, Kingkeow, D, Kawichai, S, Tanan, P, Duerr, A and Nelson, K E

Title

Male viral load and heterosexual transmission of HIV-1 subtype E in northern Thailand

Journal

J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr year=2002 pages=275-283 volume=29 issue=3

Author Sagar, M, Lavreys, L, Baeten, J M, Richardson, B A, Mandaliya, K, Ndinya-Achola, J O, Kreiss, J K, and Overbaugh, J
Title Identification of modifiable factors that affect the genetic diversity of the transmitted HIV-1 population
Journal AIDS year=2004 pages=615-619 volume=18 issue=4

Author Lavreys, L, Baeten, J M, Martin, H L Jr, Overbaugh, J, Mandaliya, K, Ndinya-Achola, J, and Kreiss, J K
Title Hormonal contraception and risk of HIV-1 acquisition: results of a 10-year prospective study
Journal AIDS year=2004 pages=695-697 volume=18 issue=4

	Author	Cayley, W E Jr
	Title	Effectiveness of condoms in reducing heterosexual transmission of HIV
	Journal	Am Fam Physician year=2004 pages=1268-1269 volume=70 issue=7

	Author	Durex publisher= year=
	Url	http://wwwdurexcom/cm/assets/SexEdDownloads/Module_5_condomsdoc
	Title	Module 5/Guidelines for Educators
	Accessdate	2006-04-17

	Author	WHO publisher= year= 2003
	Url	http://wwwwprowhoint/media_centre/fact_sheets/fs_200308_Condomshtm
	Title	Condom Facts and Figures
	Accessdate	2006-01-17

	Author	Human Rights Watch publisher=Human Rights Watch year=2002
	Url	http://wwwhrworg/reports/2002/usa0902/USA0902-04htm
	Title	Ignorance only: HIV/AIDS, Human rights and federally funded abstinence-only programs in the United States Texas: A case study
	Accessdate	2006-03-28

	Author	The Economist publisher= year=2005
	Url	http://wwweconomistcom/opinion/displayStorycfmstory_id=4223619
	Title	Too much morality, too little sense
	Accessdate	2006-03-28

	Author	WHO publisher= year=2005
	Url	http://wwwwhoint/mediacentre/news/releases/2005/pr32/en/
	Title	UNAIDS statement on South African trial findings regarding male circumcision and HIV
	Accessdate	2006-03-28

Author Various publisher=Kaisernetworkorg year=2005
Url http://wwwkaisernetworkorg/daily_reports/rep_indexcfmDR_ID=31199
Title Repeated Use of Unsterilized Blades in Ritual Circumcision Might Contribute to HIV Spread in S Africa, Doctors Say
Accessdate 2006-03-28

	Author	Fan, H year = 2005
	Title	AIDS: science and society chapter = chapterurl =
	Editor	Fan, H, Conner, R F and Villarreal, L P eds
	Edition	4th pages =
	Publisher	Jones and Bartlett Publishers
	Location	Boston, MA
	Id	ISBN 076370086X

Author WHO publisher= year= 2003
Url http://64233179104/searchq=cache:adH68_6JGG8J:tokyousembassygov//e/p/tp-20030317a3html+site:tokyousembassygov+HIV+healthcare+injection&hl=en&gl=us&ct=clnk&cd=1
Title WHO, UNAIDS Reaffirm HIV as a Sexually Transmitted Disease
Accessdate 2006-01-17

Author Physicians for Human Rights publisher=Partners in Health year=2003
Url http://wwwphrusaorg/campaigns/aids/who_031303html
Title HIV Transmission in the Medical Setting: A White Paper by Physicians for Human Rights accessdate=2006-03-01

Author United Nations General Assembly publisher= year=2001
Url http://wwwunorg/ga/aids/coverage/FinalDeclarationHIVAIDShtml
Title Declaration of Commitment on HIV/AIDS ''Global Crisis — Global Action''
Accessdate 2006-03-01

	Author	WHO publisher= year= 2001
	Url	http://wwwwhoint/inf-pr-2000/en/pr2000-25html
	Title	Blood safetyfor too few
	Accessdate	2006-01-17

Cite Journal Author

Coovadia, H journal=N Engl J Med year=2004 pages=289-292 volume=351 issue=3 id=

	Author	Sperling, R S, Shapirom D E, Coombsm R W, Todd, J A, Herman, S A, McSherry, G D, O'Sullivan, M J, Van Dyke, R B, Jimenez, E, Rouzioux, C, Flynn, P M and Sullivan, J L
	Title	Maternal viral load, zidovudine treatment, and the risk of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 from mother to infant
	Journal	N Engl J Med year=1996 pages=1621-1629 volume=335 issue=22

Author UNAIDS publisher= year= 2005
Url http://wwwunaidsorg/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_enpdf
Title AIDS epidemic update, 2005
Accessdate 2006-01-17

	Author	Dias, S F, Matos, M G and Goncalves, A C
	Title	Preventing HIV transmission in adolescents: an analysis of the Portuguese data from the Health Behaviour School-aged Children study and focus groups
	Journal	Eur J Public Health year=2005 pages=300-304 volume=15 issue=3

	Author	Schneider, M F, Gange, S J, Williams, C M, Anastos, K, Greenblatt, R M, Kingsley, L, Detels, R, and Munoz, A
	Title	Patterns of the hazard of death after AIDS through the evolution of antiretroviral therapy: 1984-2004
	Journal	AIDS year=2005 pages=2009-2018 volume=19 issue=17

Author Morgan, D, Mahe, C, Mayanja, B, Okongo, J M, Lubega, R and Whitworth, J A
Title HIV-1 infection in rural Africa: is there a difference in median time to AIDS and survival compared with that in industrialized countries
Journal AIDS year=2002 pages=597-632 volume=16 issue=4 id=

	Author	Department Of Health And Human Services publisher=
	Year	January, 2005
	Url	http://wwwhabhrsagov/tools/HIVpocketguide05/PktGARTtableshtm
	Title	A Pocket Guide to Adult HIV/AIDS Treatment January 2005 edition
	Accessdate	2006-01-17

Author Wood, E, Hogg, R S, Yip, B, Harrigan, P R, O'Shaughnessy, M V and Montaner, J S
Title Is there a baseline CD4 cell count that precludes a survival response to modern antiretroviral therapy
Journal AIDS year=2003 pages=711-720 volume=17 issue=5

Author Chene, G, Sterne, J A, May, M, Costagliola, D, Ledergerber, B, Phillips, A N, Dabis, F, Lundgren, J, D'Arminio Monforte, A, de Wolf, F, Hogg, R, Reiss, P, Justice, A, Leport, C, Staszewski, S, Gill, J, Fatkenheuer, G, Egger, M E and the Antiretroviral Therapy Cohort Collaboration
Title Prognostic importance of initial response in HIV-1 infected patients starting potent antiretroviral therapy: analysis of prospective studies
Journal Lancet year=2003 pages=679-686 volume=362 issue=9385

	Author	Department Of Health And Human Services Working Group on Antiretroviral Therapy and Medical Management of HIV-Infected Children
	Publisher	year= November 3 , 2005
	Url	http://wwwaidsinfonihgov/ContentFiles/PediatricGuidelines_PDApdf
	Title	Guidelines for the Use of Antiretroviral Agents in Pediatric HIV Infection
	Accessdate	2006-01-17

Author Department Of Health And Human Services Panel on Clinical Practices for Treatment of HIV Infection
Publisher year= October 6 , 2005
Url http://aidsinfonihgov/ContentFiles/AdultandAdolescentGLpdf
Title Guidelines for the Use of Antiretroviral Agents in HIV-1-Infected Adults and Adolescents
Accessdate 2006-01-17

	Author	Montessori, V, Press, N, Harris, M, Akagi, L, Montaner, J S
	Title	Adverse effects of antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection
	Journal	CMAJ year=2004 pages=229-238 volume=170 issue=2 id=

Author Saitoh, A, Hull, A D, Franklin, P and Spector, S A
Title Myelomeningocele in an infant with intrauterine exposure to efavirenz
Journal J Perinatol year=2005 pages=555-556 volume=25 issue=8

Author Dybul, M, Fauci, A S, Bartlett, J G, Kaplan, J E, Pau, A K Panel on Clinical Practices for Treatment of HIV
Title Guidelines for using antiretroviral agents among HIV-infected adults and adolescents
Journal Ann Intern Med year=2002 pages=381-433 volume=137 issue=5 Pt 2

Author Becker, S, Dezii, C M, Burtcel, B, Kawabata, H and Hodder, S
Title Young HIV-infected adults are at greater risk for medication nonadherence
Journal MedGenMed year=2002 pages=21 volume=4 issue=3 id=

	Author	Saltmarsh, S
	Title	Voodoo or valid Alternative therapies benefit those living with HIV
	Journal	Positively Aware year=2005 pages=46 volume=3 issue=16
	Id	url=http://wwwtpancom/publications/pa/may_jun_05/voodooshtml

	Author	Saltmarsh, S
	Title	Voodoo or valid Alternative therapies benefit those living with HIV
	Journal	Positively Aware year=2005 pages=46 volume=3 issue=16
	Id	url=http://wwwtpancom/publications/pa/may_jun_05/voodooshtml

Author Mills, E, Wu, P and Ernst, E
Title Complementary therapies for the treatment of HIV: in search of the evidence
Journal Int J STD AIDS year=2005 pages=395-403 volume=16 issue=6

	Author	UNAIDS publisher= year= 2005
	Url	http://wwwunaidsorg/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_enpdf
	Title	AIDS epidemic update, 2005
	Accessdate	2006-01-17

	Author	UNAIDS publisher= year= 2005
	Url	http://wwwunaidsorg/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_enpdf
	Title	AIDS epidemic update, 2005
	Accessdate	2006-01-17

	Author	UNAIDS publisher= year= 2005
	Url	http://wwwunaidsorg/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_enpdf
	Title	AIDS epidemic update, 2005
	Accessdate	2006-01-17

	Author	World Bank publisher= year=2005
	Url	http://wwwworldbankorg/oed/aids/main_reporthtml
	Title	Evaluating the World Bank's Assistance for Fighting the HIV/AIDS Epidemic
	Accessdate	2006-01-17

	Author	CDC
	Title	US HIV and AIDS cases reported through December 1996
	Journal	HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report year=1996 pages=1-40 volume=8 issue=2 url=http://wwwcdcgov/hiv/stats/hivsur82pdf

	Author	UNAIDS publisher= year= 2005
	Url	http://wwwunaidsorg/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_enpdf
	Title	AIDS epidemic update, 2005
	Accessdate	2006-01-17

	Author	Greener, R
	Year	2002
	Title	State of The Art: AIDS and Economics
	Chapter	AIDS and macroeconomic impact
	Chapterurl	http://wwwiaenorg/library/statepidemic/chapter7pdf
	Editor	S, Forsyth (ed)
	Pages	49-55
	Publisher	IAEN

Author Greener, R
Year 2002
Title State of The Art: AIDS and Economics
Chapter AIDS and macroeconomic impact
Chapterurl http://wwwiaenorg/library/statepidemic/chapter7pdf
Editor S, Forsyth (ed)
Pages 49-55
Publisher IAEN

	Author	Bollinger, L and Stover, J publisher=iaen year=1999
	Url	http://wwwiaenorg/impact/stovbollpdf
	Title	The Economic Impact of AIDS accessdate=2006-03-28

	Author	Over, M
	Title	The macroeconomic impact of AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa, Population and Human Resources Department
	Journal	The World Bank year=1992

Author Bonnel, R
Title HIV/AIDS and Economic Growth: A Global Perspective
Journal S A J Economics year=2000 pages=820-855 volume=68 issue=5

Author Greener, R
Year 2002
Title State of The Art: AIDS and Economics
Chapter AIDS and macroeconomic impact
Chapterurl http://wwwiaenorg/library/statepidemic/chapter7pdf
Editor S, Forsyth (ed)
Pages 49-55
Publisher IAEN

Author Bell, C, Gersbach, H and Devarajan, S publisher=eldis year= 2003
Url http://wwweldisorg/static/DOC12805htm
Title The long-run economic costs of AIDS: theory and an application to South Africa
Accessdate 2006-03-28

	Author	Herek, G M and Capitanio, J P publisher=Am Behav, Scientist year=1999
	Url	http://psychologyucdavisedu/rainbow/html/abs99_sppdf
	Title	AIDS Stigma and sexual prejudice
	Accessdate	2006-03-27

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Aids Epidemic