Name = Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) |
ICD10 = B24 |
ICD9 = |
}}
is a symbol for solidarity with HIV-positive people and those living with AIDS.]]
| |
Author |
Marx, J L title=New disease baffles medical community
|
| |
Journal |
Science year=1982 pages=618-621 volume=217 issue=4560 id=
|
|
HIV is transmitted through direct contact of a or Vaginal ) Sex ; Blood Transfusion ; contaminated needles; exchange between mother and infant during Pregnancy , Childbirth , or Breastfeeding ; or other exposure to one of the above bodily fluids.
| |
Author |
Gao, F, Bailes, E, Robertson, D L, Chen, Y, Rodenburg, C M, Michael, S F, Cummins, L B, Arthur, L O, Peeters, M, Shaw, G M, Sharp, P M and Hahn, B H
|
| |
Title |
Origin of HIV-1 in the Chimpanzee Pan troglodytes troglodytes
|
| |
Journal |
Nature year=1999 pages=436-441 volume=397 issue=6718 id=
|
|
|
| |
Author |
UNAIDS publisher= year= 2005
|
| |
Url |
http://wwwunaidsorg/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_enpdf
|
| |
Title |
AIDS epidemic update, 2005 accessdate=2006-01-17
|
| |
Author |
UNAIDS publisher= year= 2005
|
| |
Url |
http://wwwunaidsorg/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_enpdf
|
| |
Title |
AIDS epidemic update, 2005 accessdate=2006-01-17
|
| |
Author |
Palella, F J Jr, Delaney, K M, Moorman, A C, Loveless, M O, Fuhrer, J, Satten, G A, Aschman and D J, Holmberg, S D
|
| |
Title |
Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection HIV Outpatient Study Investigators
|
| |
Journal |
N Engl J Med year=1998 pages=853-860 volume=338 issue=13 id=
|
Infection by HIV
of HIV-1 budding from cultured
Lymphocyte .]]
AIDS is the most severe manifestation of infection with HIV. HIV is a
Retrovirus that primarily infects vital components of the human
Immune System such as CD4+
T Cell s,
Macrophage s and
Dendritic Cell s. It directly and indirectly destroys
CD4+ T Cell s. As CD4+ T cells are required for the proper functioning of the immune system, when HIV kills CD4+ T cells so that there are less than 200 CD4+ T cells per µl blood,
Cellular Immunity is lost, leading to AIDS. Acute HIV infection progresses over time to clinical latent HIV infection and then to early symptomatic HIV infection and later, to AIDS, which is identified on the basis of the amount of CD4+ T cells in the blood and the presence of certain infections.
| |
Author |
Morgan, D, Mahe, C, Mayanja, B, Okongo, J M, Lubega, R and Whitworth, J A
|
| |
Title |
HIV-1 infection in rural Africa: is there a difference in median time to AIDS and survival compared with that in industrialized countries
|
| |
Journal |
AIDS year=2002 pages=597-632 volume=16 issue=4 id=
|
|
| |
Author |
Clerici, M, Balotta, C, Meroni, L, Ferrario, E, Riva, C, Trabattoni, D, Ridolfo, A, Villa, M, Shearer, GM, Moroni, M and Galli, M
|
| |
Title |
Type 1 cytokine production and low prevalence of viral isolation correlate with long-term non progression in HIV infection
|
| |
Journal |
AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses year=1996 pages=1053-1061 volume=12 issue=11
|
| |
Author |
Morgan, D, Mahe, C, Mayanja, B and Whitworth, J A
|
| |
Title |
Progression to symptomatic disease in people infected with HIV-1 in rural Uganda: prospective cohort study
|
| |
Journal |
BMJ year=2002 pages=193-196 volume=324 issue=7331
|
| |
Author |
Morgan, D, Mahe, C, Mayanja, B, Okongo, J M, Lubega, R and Whitworth, J A
|
| |
Title |
HIV-1 infection in rural Africa: is there a difference in median time to AIDS and survival compared with that in industrialized countries
|
| |
Journal |
AIDS year=2002 pages=597-632 volume=16 issue=4
|
| |
Author |
Gendelman, H E, Phelps, W, Feigenbaum, L, Ostrove, J M, Adachi, A, Howley, P M, Khoury, G, Ginsberg, H S and Martin, M A
|
| |
Title |
Transactivation of the human immunodeficiency virus long terminal repeat sequences by DNA viruses
|
| |
Journal |
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A year=1986 pages=9759-9763 volume=83 issue=24
|
| |
Author |
Bentwich, Z, Kalinkovich, A and Weisman, Z
|
| |
Title |
Immune activation is a dominant factor in the pathogenesis of African AIDS
|
| |
Journal |
Immunol Today year=1995 pages=187-191 volume=16 issue=4
|
| |
Author |
Tang, J and Kaslow, R A
|
| |
Title |
The impact of host genetics on HIV infection and disease progression in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy
|
| |
Journal |
AIDS year=2003 pages=S51-S60 volume=17 issue=Suppl 4
|
| |
Author |
Quiñones-Mateu, M E, Mas, A, Lain de Lera, T, Soriano, V, Alcami, J, Lederman, M M and Domingo, E
|
| |
Title |
LTR and tat variability of HIV-1 isolates from patients with divergent rates of disease progression
|
| |
Journal |
Virus Research year=1998 pages=11-20 volume=57 issue=1
|
| |
Author |
Campbell, G R, Pasquier, E, Watkins, J, Bourgarel-Rey, V, Peyrot, V, Esquieu, D, Barbier, P, de Mareuil, J, Braguer, D, Kaleebu, P, Yirrell, D L and Loret E P
|
| |
Title |
The glutamine-rich region of the HIV-1 Tat protein is involved in T-cell apoptosis
|
| |
Journal |
J Biol Chem year=2004 pages=48197-48204 volume=279 issue=46
|
| |
Author |
Kaleebu P, French N, Mahe C, Yirrell D, Watera C, Lyagoba F, Nakiyingi J, Rutebemberwa A, Morgan D, Weber J, Gilks C, Whitworth J title=Effect of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) type 1 envelope subtypes A and D on disease progression in a large cohort of HIV-1-positive persons in Uganda journal=J Infect Dis year=2002 pages=1244-1250 volume=185 issue=9
|
Diagnosis
Since
June 18 ,
1981 , many definitions have been developed for epidemiological surveillance such as the
Bangui Definition and the
1994 Expanded World Health Organization AIDS Case Definition . However, clinical staging of patients was not an intended use for these systems as they are neither sensitive nor specific. In developing countries, the
World Health Organization s (WHO) staging system for HIV infection and disease, using clinical and laboratory data, is used and in developed countries, the
Centers For Disease Control (CDC) Classification System is used.
WHO Disease Staging System for HIV Infection and Disease
See Also: WHO Disease Staging System for HIV Infection and Disease
| |
Author |
World Health Organization
|
| |
Title |
Interim proposal for a WHO staging system for HIV infection and disease
|
| |
Journal |
WHO Wkly Epidem Rec year=1990 pages=221-228 volume=65 issue=29
|
|
: ''Stage I:'' HIV disease is asymptomatic and not categorized as AIDS
: ''Stage II:'' include minor mucocutaneous manifestations and recurrent upper respiratory tract infections
: ''Stage III:'' includes unexplained chronic diarrhoea for longer than a month, severe bacterial infections and pulmonary tuberculosis
: ''Stage IV'' includes
Toxoplasmosis of the brain,
Candidiasis of the oesophagus, trachea, bronchi or lungs and
Kaposi's Sarcoma ; these diseases are indicators of AIDS.
CDC Classification System for HIV Infection
See Also: CDC Classification System for HIV Infection
| |
Cite Web Author |
CDC publisher=CDC year=1992
|
| |
Url |
http://wwwcdcgov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00018871htm
|
| |
Title |
1993 Revised Classification System for HIV Infection and Expanded Surveillance Case Definition for AIDS Among Adolescents and Adults
|
| |
Accessdate |
2006-02-09
|
|
HIV test
See Also: HIV test
Approximately half of those infected with HIV do not know their HIV status until their AIDS diagnosis with a HIV test. The screening of donor blood and blood products used in medicine and medical research is by this test. Typical HIV tests, including the HIV enzyme immunoassay and the Western blot assay, detect HIV antibodies in serum, plasma, oral fluid, dried blood spot or urine of patients. Commercially available tests to detect other HIV antigens, HIV-RNA, and HIV-DNA in order to detect HIV infection prior to the development of detectable antibodies are available. However, for the diagnosis of HIV infection these assays are not specifically approved, but are nonetheless routinely used in developed countries.
Symptoms and Complications
| |
Author |
Holmes, C B, Losina, E, Walensky, R P, Yazdanpanah, Y, Freedberg, K A
|
| |
Title |
Review of human immunodeficiency virus type 1-related opportunistic infections in sub-Saharan Africa
|
| |
Journal |
Clin Infect Dis year=2003 pages=656-662 volume=36 issue=5
|
|
| |
Author |
Guss, D A
|
| |
Title |
The acquired immune deficiency syndrome: an overview for the emergency physician, Part 1
|
| |
Journal |
J Emerg Med year=1994 pages=375-384 volume=12 issue=3
|
|
| |
Author |
Guss, D A
|
| |
Title |
The acquired immune deficiency syndrome: an overview for the emergency physician, Part 2
|
| |
Journal |
J Emerg Med year=1994 pages=491-497 volume=12 issue=4
|
| |
Author |
Schneider, M F, Gange, S J, Williams, C M, Anastos, K, Greenblatt, R M, Kingsley, L, Detels, R, and Munoz, A
|
| |
Title |
Patterns of the hazard of death after AIDS through the evolution of antiretroviral therapy: 1984-2004
|
| |
Journal |
AIDS year=2005 pages=2009-2018 volume=19 issue=17
|
| |
Author |
Morgan, D, Mahe, C, Mayanja, B, Okongo, J M, Lubega, R and Whitworth, J A
|
| |
Title |
HIV-1 infection in rural Africa: is there a difference in median time to AIDS and survival compared with that in industrialized countries
|
| |
Journal |
AIDS year=2002 pages=597-632 volume=16 issue=4
|
| |
Author |
Lawn, S D
|
| |
Title |
AIDS in Africa: the impact of coinfections on the pathogenesis of HIV-1 infection
|
| |
Journal |
J Infect Dis year=2004 pages=1-12 volume=48 issue=1
|
| |
Author |
Clerici, M, Balotta, C, Meroni, L, Ferrario, E, Riva, C, Trabattoni, D, Ridolfo, A, Villa, M, Shearer, GM, Moroni, M and Galli, M
|
| |
Title |
Type 1 cytokine production and low prevalence of viral isolation correlate with long-term non progression in HIV infection
|
| |
Journal |
AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses year=1996 pages=1053-1061 volume=12 issue=11
|
|
| |
Author |
Morgan, D, Mahe, C, Mayanja, B and Whitworth, J A
|
| |
Title |
Progression to symptomatic disease in people infected with HIV-1 in rural Uganda: prospective cohort study
|
| |
Journal |
BMJ year=2002 pages=193-196 volume=324 issue=7331
|
| |
Author |
Tang, J and Kaslow, R A
|
| |
Title |
The impact of host genetics on HIV infection and disease progression in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy
|
| |
Journal |
AIDS year=2003 pages=S51-S60 volume=17 issue=Suppl 4
|
| |
Author |
Morgan, D, Mahe, C, Mayanja, B, Okongo, J M, Lubega, R and Whitworth, J A
|
| |
Title |
HIV-1 infection in rural Africa: is there a difference in median time to AIDS and survival compared with that in industrialized countries
|
| |
Journal |
AIDS year=2002 pages=597-632 volume=16 issue=4
|
| |
Author |
Lawn, S D
|
| |
Title |
AIDS in Africa: the impact of coinfections on the pathogenesis of HIV-1 infection
|
| |
Journal |
J Infect Dis year=2004 pages=1-12 volume=48 issue=1
|
| |
Author |
Campbell, G R, Pasquier, E, Watkins, J, Bourgarel-Rey, V, Peyrot, V, Esquieu, D, Barbier, P, de Mareuil, J, Braguer, D, Kaleebu, P, Yirrell, D L and Loret E P
|
| |
Title |
The glutamine-rich region of the HIV-1 Tat protein is involved in T-cell apoptosis
|
| |
Journal |
J Biol Chem year=2004 pages=48197-48204 volume=279 issue=46
|
| |
Author |
Campbell, G R, Watkins, J D, Esquieu, D, Pasquier, E, Loret, E P and Spector, S A
|
| |
Title |
The C terminus of HIV-1 Tat modulates the extent of CD178-mediated apoptosis of T cells
|
| |
Journal |
J Biol Chem year=2005 pages=38376-39382 volume=280 issue=46
|
| |
Author |
Senkaali, D, Muwonge, R, Morgan, D, Yirrell, D, Whitworth, J and Kaleebu, P
|
| |
Title |
The relationship between HIV type 1 disease progression and V3 serotype in a rural Ugandan cohort
|
| |
Journal |
AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses year=2005 pages=932-937 volume=20 issue=9
|
Major pulmonary illnesses
| |
Author |
Feldman, C
|
| |
Title |
Pneumonia associated with HIV infection
|
| |
Journal |
Curr Opin Infect Dis year=2005 pages=165-170 volume=18 issue=2
|
|
| |
Author |
Decker, C F and Lazarus, A
|
| |
Title |
Tuberculosis and HIV infection How to safely treat both disorders concurrently
|
| |
Journal |
Postgrad Med year=2000 pages=57-60, 65-68 volume=108 issue=2
|
|
Major gastro-intestinal illnesses
| |
Author |
Zaidi, S A and Cervia, J S
|
| |
Title |
Diagnosis and management of infectious esophagitis associated with human immunodeficiency virus infection
|
| |
Journal |
J Int Assoc Physicians AIDS Care (Chic Ill) year=2002 pages=53-62 volume=1 issue=2
|
|
| |
Author |
Guerrant, R L, Hughes, J M, Lima, N L, Crane, J
|
| |
Title |
Diarrhea in developed and developing countries: magnitude, special settings, and etiologies
|
| |
Journal |
Rev Infect Dis year=1990 pages=S41-S50 volume=12 issue=Suppl 1
|
|
Major neurological illnesses
| |
Author |
Luft, B J and Chua, A
|
| |
Title |
Central Nervous System Toxoplasmosis in HIV Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Therapy
|
| |
Journal |
Curr Infect Dis Rep year=2000 pages=358-362 volume=2 issue=4
|
|
| |
Author |
Sadler, M and Nelson, M R
|
| |
Title |
Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in HIV
|
| |
Journal |
Int J STD AIDS year=1997 pages=351-357 volume=8 issue=6
|
|
| |
Author |
Gray, F, Adle-Biassette, H, Chrétien, F, Lorin de la Grandmaison, G, Force, G, Keohane, C
|
| |
Title |
Neuropathology and neurodegeneration in human immunodeficiency virus infection Pathogenesis of HIV-induced lesions of the brain, correlations with HIV-associated disorders and modifications according to treatments
|
| |
Journal |
Clin Neuropathol year=2001 pages=146-155 volume=20 issue=4
|
|
| |
Author |
Grant, I, Sacktor, H, and McArthur, J
|
| |
Year |
2005
|
| |
Title |
The Neurology of AIDS
|
| |
Chapter |
HIV neurocognitive disorders
|
| |
Chapterurl |
http://wwwhnrcucsdedu/publications_pdf/2005grant1pdf
|
| |
Editor |
H E Gendelman, I Grant, I Everall, S A Lipton, and S Swindells (ed)
|
| |
Edition |
2nd
|
| |
Pages |
357-373
|
| |
Publisher |
Oxford University Press
|
| |
Location |
London, UK
|
| |
Id |
ISBN 0198526105
|
| |
Author |
Satishchandra, P, Nalini, A, Gourie-Devi, M, Khanna, N, Santosh, V, Ravi, V, Desai, A, Chandramuki, A, Jayakumar, P N, and Shankar, S K
|
| |
Title |
Profile of neurologic disorders associated with HIV/AIDS from Bangalore, south India (1989-96)
|
| |
Journal |
Indian J Med Res year=2000 pages=14-23 volume=11 issue=
|
| |
Author |
Wadia, R S, Pujari, S N, Kothari, S, Udhar, M, Kulkarni, S, Bhagat, S, and Nanivadekar, A
|
| |
Title |
Neurological manifestations of HIV disease
|
| |
Journal |
J Assoc Physicians India year=2001 pages=343-348 volume=49 issue=
|
- Cryptococcal meningitis is an infection of the Meninges (the membrane covering the brain and spinal cord) by the fungus '' Cryptococcus neoformans''. It can cause fevers, headache, fatigue, nausea, and vomiting. Patients may also develop seizures and confusion. If untreated, it can be lethal.
Major HIV-associated malignancies
| |
Author |
Boshoff, C and Weiss, R
|
| |
Title |
AIDS-related malignancies
|
| |
Journal |
Nat Rev Cancer year=2002 pages=373-382 volume=2 issue=5
|
|
| |
Author |
Yarchoan, R, Tosatom G and Littlem R F
|
| |
Title |
Therapy insight: AIDS-related malignancies - the influence of antiviral therapy on pathogenesis and management
|
| |
Journal |
Nat Clin Pract Oncol year=2005 pages=406-415 volume=2 issue=8
|
- Kaposi's sarcoma (KS) is the most common tumour in HIV-infected patients. A gammaherpesvirus called Kaposi's Sarcoma-associated Herpes Virus (KSHV) causes it. The appearance of this tumour in young gay men in 1981 was one of the first signals of the AIDS epidemic. It often appears as purplish nodules on the skin, but can affect other organs, especially the mouth, gastrointestinal tract, and lungs.
- High-grade B cell lymphomas such as Burkitt's Lymphoma , Burkitt's-like lymphoma, and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), including primary central nervous system lymphoma, have substantially increased incidence in HIV-infected patients and often portend a poor prognosis. In some cases these lymphomas are AIDS-defining. Primary Effusion Lymphoma is less common. Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) or KSHV cause many of these lymphomas.
- Cervical Cancer in HIV-infected women is considered AIDS-defining. It is caused by Human Papillomavirus (HPV).
| |
Author |
Bonnet, F, Lewden, C, May, T, Heripret, L, Jougla, E, Bevilacqua, S, Costagliola, D, Salmon, D, Chene, G and Morlat, P
|
| |
Title |
Malignancy-related causes of death in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy
|
| |
Journal |
Cancer year=2004 pages=317-324 volume=101 issue=2
|
|
Other opportunistic infections
| |
Author |
Skoulidis, F, Morgan, M S, and MacLeod, K M
|
| |
Title |
Penicillium marneffei: a pathogen on our doorstep
|
| |
Journal |
J R Soc Med year=2004 pages=394-396 volume=97 issue=2
|
|
Transmission and prevention
|- bgcolor="#efefef"
| style="width: 100px"|
Exposure Route
| style="width: 150px"|
Estimated infections per 10,000 exposures to an infected source
|-
| |
Cite Journal Author |
Donegan, E, Stuart, M, Niland, J C, Sacks, H S, Azen, S P, Dietrich, S L, Faucett, C, Fletcher, M A, Kleinman, S H, Operskalski, E A, et al title=Infection with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) among recipients of antibody-positive blood donations journal=Ann Intern Med year=1990 pages=733-739 volume=113 issue=10
|
|
|-
| |
Cite Journal Author |
Coovadia, H title=Antiretroviral agents&mdashhow best to protect infants from HIV and save their mothers from AIDS journal=N Engl J Med year=2004 pages=289-292 volume=351 issue=3 id=
|
|
|-
| |
Cite Journal Author |
Kaplan, E H and Heimer, R title=HIV incidence among New Haven needle exchange participants: updated estimates from syringe tracking and testing data journal=J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol year=1995 pages=175-176 volume=10 issue=2
|
|
|-
| |
Cite Journal Author |
European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV title=Comparison of female to male and male to female transmission of HIV in 563 stable couples journal=BMJ year=1992 pages=809-813 volume=304 issue=6830 id=
|
|
| |
Cite Journal Author |
Varghese, B, Maher, J E, Peterman, T A, Branson, B M and Steketee, R W title=Reducing the risk of sexual HIV transmission: quantifying the per-act risk for HIV on the basis of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use journal=Sex Transm Dis year=2002 pages=38-43 volume=29 issue=1 id=
|
|-
| |
Cite Journal Author |
Bell, D M title=Occupational risk of human immunodeficiency virus infection in healthcare workers: an overview journal=Am J Med year=1997 pages=9-15 volume=102 issue=5B id=
|
|
|-
| |
Cite Journal Author |
European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV title=Comparison of female to male and male to female transmission of HIV in 563 stable couples journal=BMJ year=1992 pages=809-813 volume=304 issue=6830 id=
|
|
| |
Cite Journal Author |
Varghese, B, Maher, J E, Peterman, T A, Branson, B M and Steketee, R W title=Reducing the risk of sexual HIV transmission: quantifying the per-act risk for HIV on the basis of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use journal=Sex Transm Dis year=2002 pages=38-43 volume=29 issue=1 id=
|
| |
Cite Journal Author |
Leynaert, B, Downs, A M and de Vincenzi, I title=Heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus: variability of infectivity throughout the course of infection European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV journal=Am J Epidemiol year=1998 pages=88-96 volume=148 issue=1 id=
|
|-
| |
Cite Journal Author |
European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV title=Comparison of female to male and male to female transmission of HIV in 563 stable couples journal=BMJ year=1992 pages=809-813 volume=304 issue=6830 id=
|
|
| |
Cite Journal Author |
Varghese, B, Maher, J E, Peterman, T A, Branson, B M and Steketee, R W title=Reducing the risk of sexual HIV transmission: quantifying the per-act risk for HIV on the basis of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use journal=Sex Transm Dis year=2002 pages=38-43 volume=29 issue=1 id=
|
|-
| |
Cite Journal Author |
European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV title=Comparison of female to male and male to female transmission of HIV in 563 stable couples journal=BMJ year=1992 pages=809-813 volume=304 issue=6830 id=
|
|
| |
Cite Journal Author |
Varghese, B, Maher, J E, Peterman, T A, Branson, B M and Steketee, R W title=Reducing the risk of sexual HIV transmission: quantifying the per-act risk for HIV on the basis of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use journal=Sex Transm Dis year=2002 pages=38-43 volume=29 issue=1 id=
|
|-
| |
Cite Journal Author |
Varghese, B, Maher, J E, Peterman, T A, Branson, B M and Steketee, R W title=Reducing the risk of sexual HIV transmission: quantifying the per-act risk for HIV on the basis of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use journal=Sex Transm Dis year=2002 pages=38-43 volume=29 issue=1 id=
|
|
|-
| |
Cite Journal Author |
Varghese, B, Maher, J E, Peterman, T A, Branson, B M and Steketee, R W title=Reducing the risk of sexual HIV transmission: quantifying the per-act risk for HIV on the basis of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use journal=Sex Transm Dis year=2002 pages=38-43 volume=29 issue=1 id=
|
|
|- bgcolor="#efefef"
- assuming no condom use § Source refers to oral intercourse performed on a man
|}
The three main transmission routes of HIV are sexual contact, exposure to infected body fluids or tissues and from mother to foetus or child during perinatal period. It is possible to find HIV in the
Saliva ,
Tears and
Urine of infected individuals, but due to the low concentration of virus in these biological liquids, the risk is negligible.
Sexual contact
| |
Cite Journal Author |
Rothenberg, R B, Scarlett, M, del Rio, C, Reznik, D and O'Daniels, C
|
| |
Title |
Oral transmission of HIV journal=AIDS year=1998 pages=2095-2105 volume=12 issue=16
|
|
| |
Author |
Laga, M, Nzila, N, Goeman, J
|
| |
Title |
The interrelationship of sexually transmitted diseases and HIV infection: implications for the control of both epidemics in Africa
|
| |
Journal |
AIDS year=1991 pages=S55-S63 volume=5 issue=Suppl 1
|
|
| |
Author |
Laga, M, Nzila, N, Goeman, J
|
| |
Title |
The interrelationship of sexually transmitted diseases and HIV infection: implications for the control of both epidemics in Africa
|
| |
Journal |
AIDS year=1991 pages=S55-S63 volume=5 issue=Suppl 1
|
|
| |
Author |
Tovanabutra, S, Robison, V, Wongtrakul, J, Sennum, S, Suriyanon, V, Kingkeow, D, Kawichai, S, Tanan, P, Duerr, A and Nelson, K E
|
| |
Title |
Male viral load and heterosexual transmission of HIV-1 subtype E in northern Thailand
|
| |
Journal |
J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr year=2002 pages=275-283 volume=29 issue=3
|
| |
Author |
Sagar, M, Lavreys, L, Baeten, J M, Richardson, B A, Mandaliya, K, Ndinya-Achola, J O, Kreiss, J K, and Overbaugh, J
|
| |
Title |
Identification of modifiable factors that affect the genetic diversity of the transmitted HIV-1 population
|
| |
Journal |
AIDS year=2004 pages=615-619 volume=18 issue=4
|
| |
Author |
Lavreys, L, Baeten, J M, Martin, H L Jr, Overbaugh, J, Mandaliya, K, Ndinya-Achola, J, and Kreiss, J K
|
| |
Title |
Hormonal contraception and risk of HIV-1 acquisition: results of a 10-year prospective study
|
| |
Journal |
AIDS year=2004 pages=695-697 volume=18 issue=4
|
| |
Author |
Cayley, W E Jr
|
| |
Title |
Effectiveness of condoms in reducing heterosexual transmission of HIV
|
| |
Journal |
Am Fam Physician year=2004 pages=1268-1269 volume=70 issue=7
|
|
Promoting condom use, however, has often proved controversial and difficult. Many religious groups, most visibly the
Catholic Church , have opposed the use of condoms on religious grounds, and have sometimes seen condom promotion as an affront to the promotion of marriage, monogamy and sexual morality. As of April 2006 however, the Catholic Church for the first time relaxed its stance on the use of contraception, citing it as "the lesser of two evils" and that it may be acceptable to use if the prevention of disease is considered. Other religious groups, such as the
Scottish Episcopalians , have argued that preventing HIV infection is a moral task in itself and that condoms are therefore acceptable or even praiseworthy from a religious point of view.
| |
Author |
Durex publisher= year=
|
| |
Url |
http://wwwdurexcom/cm/assets/SexEdDownloads/Module_5_condomsdoc
|
| |
Title |
Module 5/Guidelines for Educators
|
| |
Accessdate |
2006-04-17
|
|
''
The Female Condom '' is an alternative to the male condom and is made from
Polyurethane , which allows it to be used in the presence of oil-based lubricants. They are larger than male condoms and have a stiffened ring-shaped opening, and are designed to be inserted into the vagina. The female condom contains an inner ring which keeps the condom in place inside the vagina—inserting the female condom requires squeezing this ring.
| |
Author |
WHO publisher= year= 2003
|
| |
Url |
http://wwwwprowhoint/media_centre/fact_sheets/fs_200308_Condomshtm
|
| |
Title |
Condom Facts and Figures
|
| |
Accessdate |
2006-01-17
|
|
The United States government and health organizations both endorse the ''ABC Approach'' to lower the risk of acquiring AIDS during sex:
:
Abstinence or delay of sexual activity, especially for youth,
:
Being faithful, especially for those in committed relationships,
:
Condom use, for those who engage in risky behaviour.
| |
Author |
Human Rights Watch publisher=Human Rights Watch year=2002
|
| |
Url |
http://wwwhrworg/reports/2002/usa0902/USA0902-04htm
|
| |
Title |
Ignorance only: HIV/AIDS, Human rights and federally funded abstinence-only programs in the United States Texas: A case study
|
| |
Accessdate |
2006-03-28
|
|
:
Condom use, for those who engage in risky behaviour.
:
Needles, use clean ones
:
Negotiating skills; negotiating safer sex with a partner and empowering women to make smart choices
| |
Author |
The Economist publisher= year=2005
|
| |
Url |
http://wwweconomistcom/opinion/displayStorycfmstory_id=4223619
|
| |
Title |
Too much morality, too little sense
|
| |
Accessdate |
2006-03-28
|
|
| |
Author |
WHO publisher= year=2005
|
| |
Url |
http://wwwwhoint/mediacentre/news/releases/2005/pr32/en/
|
| |
Title |
UNAIDS statement on South African trial findings regarding male circumcision and HIV
|
| |
Accessdate |
2006-03-28
|
|
| |
Author |
Various publisher=Kaisernetworkorg year=2005
|
| |
Url |
http://wwwkaisernetworkorg/daily_reports/rep_indexcfmDR_ID=31199
|
| |
Title |
Repeated Use of Unsterilized Blades in Ritual Circumcision Might Contribute to HIV Spread in S Africa, Doctors Say
|
| |
Accessdate |
2006-03-28
|
Exposure to infected body fluids
| |
Author |
Fan, H year = 2005
|
| |
Title |
AIDS: science and society chapter = chapterurl =
|
| |
Editor |
Fan, H, Conner, R F and Villarreal, L P eds
|
| |
Edition |
4th pages =
|
| |
Publisher |
Jones and Bartlett Publishers
|
| |
Location |
Boston, MA
|
| |
Id |
ISBN 076370086X
|
|
| |
Author |
WHO publisher= year= 2003
|
| |
Url |
http://64233179104/searchq=cache:adH68_6JGG8J:tokyousembassygov//e/p/tp-20030317a3html+site:tokyousembassygov+HIV+healthcare+injection&hl=en&gl=us&ct=clnk&cd=1
|
| |
Title |
WHO, UNAIDS Reaffirm HIV as a Sexually Transmitted Disease
|
| |
Accessdate |
2006-01-17
|
| |
Author |
Physicians for Human Rights publisher=Partners in Health year=2003
|
| |
Url |
http://wwwphrusaorg/campaigns/aids/who_031303html
|
| |
Title |
HIV Transmission in the Medical Setting: A White Paper by Physicians for Human Rights accessdate=2006-03-01
|
| |
Author |
United Nations General Assembly publisher= year=2001
|
| |
Url |
http://wwwunorg/ga/aids/coverage/FinalDeclarationHIVAIDShtml
|
| |
Title |
Declaration of Commitment on HIV/AIDS ''Global Crisis — Global Action''
|
| |
Accessdate |
2006-03-01
|
| |
Author |
WHO publisher= year= 2001
|
| |
Url |
http://wwwwhoint/inf-pr-2000/en/pr2000-25html
|
| |
Title |
Blood safetyfor too few
|
| |
Accessdate |
2006-01-17
|
|
Medical workers who follow
Universal Precautions or body substance isolation such as wearing latex gloves when giving injections and washing the hands frequently can help prevent infection of HIV.
All AIDS-prevention organizations advise drug-users not to share needles and other material required to prepare and take drugs (including syringes, cotton balls, the spoons, water for diluting the drug, straws, crack pipes etc). It is important that people use new or properly sterilized needles for each injection. Information on cleaning needles using bleach is available from health care and addiction professionals and from
Needle Exchange s. In some developed countries, clean needles are available free in some cities, at needle exchanges or
Safe Injection Site s. Additionally, many nations have decriminalized needle possession and made it possible to buy injection equipment from pharmacists without a prescription.
Mother to Child Transmission (MTCT)
| |
Cite Journal Author |
Coovadia, H journal=N Engl J Med year=2004 pages=289-292 volume=351 issue=3 id=
|
|
| |
Author |
Sperling, R S, Shapirom D E, Coombsm R W, Todd, J A, Herman, S A, McSherry, G D, O'Sullivan, M J, Van Dyke, R B, Jimenez, E, Rouzioux, C, Flynn, P M and Sullivan, J L
|
| |
Title |
Maternal viral load, zidovudine treatment, and the risk of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 from mother to infant
|
| |
Journal |
N Engl J Med year=1996 pages=1621-1629 volume=335 issue=22
|
|
| |
Author |
UNAIDS publisher= year= 2005
|
| |
Url |
http://wwwunaidsorg/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_enpdf
|
| |
Title |
AIDS epidemic update, 2005
|
| |
Accessdate |
2006-01-17
|
| |
Author |
Dias, S F, Matos, M G and Goncalves, A C
|
| |
Title |
Preventing HIV transmission in adolescents: an analysis of the Portuguese data from the Health Behaviour School-aged Children study and focus groups
|
| |
Journal |
Eur J Public Health year=2005 pages=300-304 volume=15 issue=3
|
|
Treatment
| |
Author |
Schneider, M F, Gange, S J, Williams, C M, Anastos, K, Greenblatt, R M, Kingsley, L, Detels, R, and Munoz, A
|
| |
Title |
Patterns of the hazard of death after AIDS through the evolution of antiretroviral therapy: 1984-2004
|
| |
Journal |
AIDS year=2005 pages=2009-2018 volume=19 issue=17
|
|
| |
Author |
Morgan, D, Mahe, C, Mayanja, B, Okongo, J M, Lubega, R and Whitworth, J A
|
| |
Title |
HIV-1 infection in rural Africa: is there a difference in median time to AIDS and survival compared with that in industrialized countries
|
| |
Journal |
AIDS year=2002 pages=597-632 volume=16 issue=4 id=
|
| |
Author |
Department Of Health And Human Services publisher=
|
| |
Year |
January, 2005
|
| |
Url |
http://wwwhabhrsagov/tools/HIVpocketguide05/PktGARTtableshtm
|
| |
Title |
A Pocket Guide to Adult HIV/AIDS Treatment January 2005 edition
|
| |
Accessdate |
2006-01-17
|
|
| |
Author |
Wood, E, Hogg, R S, Yip, B, Harrigan, P R, O'Shaughnessy, M V and Montaner, J S
|
| |
Title |
Is there a baseline CD4 cell count that precludes a survival response to modern antiretroviral therapy
|
| |
Journal |
AIDS year=2003 pages=711-720 volume=17 issue=5
|
| |
Author |
Chene, G, Sterne, J A, May, M, Costagliola, D, Ledergerber, B, Phillips, A N, Dabis, F, Lundgren, J, D'Arminio Monforte, A, de Wolf, F, Hogg, R, Reiss, P, Justice, A, Leport, C, Staszewski, S, Gill, J, Fatkenheuer, G, Egger, M E and the Antiretroviral Therapy Cohort Collaboration
|
| |
Title |
Prognostic importance of initial response in HIV-1 infected patients starting potent antiretroviral therapy: analysis of prospective studies
|
| |
Journal |
Lancet year=2003 pages=679-686 volume=362 issue=9385
|
| |
Author |
Department Of Health And Human Services Working Group on Antiretroviral Therapy and Medical Management of HIV-Infected Children
|
| |
Publisher |
year= November 3 , 2005
|
| |
Url |
http://wwwaidsinfonihgov/ContentFiles/PediatricGuidelines_PDApdf
|
| |
Title |
Guidelines for the Use of Antiretroviral Agents in Pediatric HIV Infection
|
| |
Accessdate |
2006-01-17
|
|
| |
Author |
Department Of Health And Human Services Panel on Clinical Practices for Treatment of HIV Infection
|
| |
Publisher |
year= October 6 , 2005
|
| |
Url |
http://aidsinfonihgov/ContentFiles/AdultandAdolescentGLpdf
|
| |
Title |
Guidelines for the Use of Antiretroviral Agents in HIV-1-Infected Adults and Adolescents
|
| |
Accessdate |
2006-01-17
|
| |
Author |
Montessori, V, Press, N, Harris, M, Akagi, L, Montaner, J S
|
| |
Title |
Adverse effects of antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection
|
| |
Journal |
CMAJ year=2004 pages=229-238 volume=170 issue=2 id=
|
|
| |
Author |
Saitoh, A, Hull, A D, Franklin, P and Spector, S A
|
| |
Title |
Myelomeningocele in an infant with intrauterine exposure to efavirenz
|
| |
Journal |
J Perinatol year=2005 pages=555-556 volume=25 issue=8
|
| |
Author |
Dybul, M, Fauci, A S, Bartlett, J G, Kaplan, J E, Pau, A K Panel on Clinical Practices for Treatment of HIV
|
| |
Title |
Guidelines for using antiretroviral agents among HIV-infected adults and adolescents
|
| |
Journal |
Ann Intern Med year=2002 pages=381-433 volume=137 issue=5 Pt 2
|
| |
Author |
Becker, S, Dezii, C M, Burtcel, B, Kawabata, H and Hodder, S
|
| |
Title |
Young HIV-infected adults are at greater risk for medication nonadherence
|
| |
Journal |
MedGenMed year=2002 pages=21 volume=4 issue=3 id=
|
A number of studies have shown that measures to prevent opportunistic infections can be beneficial when treating patients with HIV infection or AIDS. Vaccination against hepatitis A and B is advised for patients who are not infected with these viruses and are at risk of getting infected. In addition, AIDS patients should receive vaccination against
Streptococcus Pneumoniae and should receive yearly vaccination against
Influenza Virus . Patients with substantial immunosuppression are generally advised to receive prophylactic therapy for
Pneumocystis Jiroveci Pneumonia (PCP), and many patients may benefit from prophylactic therapy for
Toxoplasmosis and
Cryptococcus meningitis.
| |
Author |
Saltmarsh, S
|
| |
Title |
Voodoo or valid Alternative therapies benefit those living with HIV
|
| |
Journal |
Positively Aware year=2005 pages=46 volume=3 issue=16
|
| |
Id |
url=http://wwwtpancom/publications/pa/may_jun_05/voodooshtml
|
|
| |
Author |
Saltmarsh, S
|
| |
Title |
Voodoo or valid Alternative therapies benefit those living with HIV
|
| |
Journal |
Positively Aware year=2005 pages=46 volume=3 issue=16
|
| |
Id |
url=http://wwwtpancom/publications/pa/may_jun_05/voodooshtml
|
|
| |
Author |
Mills, E, Wu, P and Ernst, E
|
| |
Title |
Complementary therapies for the treatment of HIV: in search of the evidence
|
| |
Journal |
Int J STD AIDS year=2005 pages=395-403 volume=16 issue=6
|
Epidemiology
See Also: AIDS pandemic
| |
Author |
UNAIDS publisher= year= 2005
|
| |
Url |
http://wwwunaidsorg/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_enpdf
|
| |
Title |
AIDS epidemic update, 2005
|
| |
Accessdate |
2006-01-17
|
|
| |
Author |
UNAIDS publisher= year= 2005
|
| |
Url |
http://wwwunaidsorg/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_enpdf
|
| |
Title |
AIDS epidemic update, 2005
|
| |
Accessdate |
2006-01-17
|
|
| |
Author |
UNAIDS publisher= year= 2005
|
| |
Url |
http://wwwunaidsorg/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_enpdf
|
| |
Title |
AIDS epidemic update, 2005
|
| |
Accessdate |
2006-01-17
|
|
| |
Author |
World Bank publisher= year=2005
|
| |
Url |
http://wwwworldbankorg/oed/aids/main_reporthtml
|
| |
Title |
Evaluating the World Bank's Assistance for Fighting the HIV/AIDS Epidemic
|
| |
Accessdate |
2006-01-17
|
|
| |
Author |
CDC
|
| |
Title |
US HIV and AIDS cases reported through December 1996
|
| |
Journal |
HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report year=1996 pages=1-40 volume=8 issue=2 url=http://wwwcdcgov/hiv/stats/hivsur82pdf
|
|
In the 35 African nations with the highest prevalence, average
Life Expectancy is 48.3 years—6.5 years less than it would be without the disease. For the eleven countries in Africa with prevalence rates above 13%, life expectancy is 47.7 years—11.0 years less than would be expected without HIV/AIDS.
In Africa, the number of MTCT and the prevalence of AIDS is beginning to reverse decades of steady progress in child survival. Countries, such as Uganda are attempting to curb the MTCT epidemic by offering VCT (voluntary counselling and testing), PMTCT (prevention of mother-to-child tranmission) and ANC (ante-natal care) services, which include the distribution of antiretroviral therapy.
Economic impact
| |
Author |
UNAIDS publisher= year= 2005
|
| |
Url |
http://wwwunaidsorg/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_enpdf
|
| |
Title |
AIDS epidemic update, 2005
|
| |
Accessdate |
2006-01-17
|
|
Without proper nutrition, health care and medicine that is available in developed countries, large numbers of people in these countries are progressing to AIDS. They will not only be unable to work, but will also require significant medical care. The forecast is that this will likely cause a collapse of economies and societies in the region. In some heavily infected areas, the epidemic has left behind many orphans cared for by elderly grandparents.
| |
Author |
Greener, R
|
| |
Year |
2002
|
| |
Title |
State of The Art: AIDS and Economics
|
| |
Chapter |
AIDS and macroeconomic impact
|
| |
Chapterurl |
http://wwwiaenorg/library/statepidemic/chapter7pdf
|
| |
Editor |
S, Forsyth (ed)
|
| |
Pages |
49-55
|
| |
Publisher |
IAEN
|
|
| |
Author |
Greener, R
|
| |
Year |
2002
|
| |
Title |
State of The Art: AIDS and Economics
|
| |
Chapter |
AIDS and macroeconomic impact
|
| |
Chapterurl |
http://wwwiaenorg/library/statepidemic/chapter7pdf
|
| |
Editor |
S, Forsyth (ed)
|
| |
Pages |
49-55
|
| |
Publisher |
IAEN
|
| |
Author |
Bollinger, L and Stover, J publisher=iaen year=1999
|
| |
Url |
http://wwwiaenorg/impact/stovbollpdf
|
| |
Title |
The Economic Impact of AIDS accessdate=2006-03-28
|
|
| |
Author |
Over, M
|
| |
Title |
The macroeconomic impact of AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa, Population and Human Resources Department
|
| |
Journal |
The World Bank year=1992
|
|
| |
Author |
Bonnel, R
|
| |
Title |
HIV/AIDS and Economic Growth: A Global Perspective
|
| |
Journal |
S A J Economics year=2000 pages=820-855 volume=68 issue=5
|
| |
Author |
Greener, R
|
| |
Year |
2002
|
| |
Title |
State of The Art: AIDS and Economics
|
| |
Chapter |
AIDS and macroeconomic impact
|
| |
Chapterurl |
http://wwwiaenorg/library/statepidemic/chapter7pdf
|
| |
Editor |
S, Forsyth (ed)
|
| |
Pages |
49-55
|
| |
Publisher |
IAEN
|
| |
Author |
Bell, C, Gersbach, H and Devarajan, S publisher=eldis year= 2003
|
| |
Url |
http://wwweldisorg/static/DOC12805htm
|
| |
Title |
The long-run economic costs of AIDS: theory and an application to South Africa
|
| |
Accessdate |
2006-03-28
|
Many governments in sub-Saharan Africa denied that there was a problem for years, and are only now starting to work towards solutions. Underfunding is a problem in all areas of HIV prevention when compared to even conservative estimates of the problems.
Stigma
AIDS stigma exists around the world in a variety of ways, including ostracism, rejection, discrimination and avoidance of HIV infected people; compulsory HIV testing without prior consent or protection of confidentiality; violence against HIV infected individuals or people who are perceived to be infected with HIV; and the quarantine of HIV infected individuals.
AIDS stigma has been further divided into the following three categories:
| |
Author |
Herek, G M and Capitanio, J P publisher=Am Behav, Scientist year=1999
|
| |
Url |
http://psychologyucdavisedu/rainbow/html/abs99_sppdf
|
| |
Title |
AIDS Stigma and sexual prejudice
|
| |
Accessdate |
2006-03-27
|
|
| |
Author |
Herek, G M and Capitanio, J P publisher=Am Behav, Scientist year=1999
|
| |
Url |
http://psychologyucdavisedu/rainbow/html/abs99_sppdf
|
| |
Title |
AIDS Stigma and sexual prejudice
|
| |
Accessdate |
2006-03-27
|
|
| |
Author |
Snyder M, Omoto AM, Crain AL
|
| |
Title |
Punished for their good deeds: st | |
