| T-v Distinction |
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In many languages, the formal singular pronoun derives from a plural form (or, sometimes, from a third person pronoun). Many Romance languages have familiar forms derived from the Latin singular ''tu'' and formal forms derived from Latin plural '''''v'''os'', sometimes via a circuitous route. Compare Pluralis Majestatis . EXAMPLES OF T-V DISTINCTIONS Here are some examples of Second-person pronouns in languages with T-V distinctions:
LANGUAGE-SPECIFIC REMARKS Different languages distinguish pronoun uses in different ways. General hints It can often be quite confusing for an English speaker learning a language with a T-V distinction to correctly assimilate the rules surrounding when to call someone with the formal or the informal pronoun. Students are often advised to err on the side of caution, the formal; in the wrong situation, however, this risks sounding snobby or at least riotously funny. English speakers may be helped by reminding themselves that the difference is comparable to using first name vs. last name (or using ''sir'' and ''ma'am'') when speaking to someone; however the boundaries between formal and informal language differ from language to language, and most languages use formal speech more frequently, and/or in different circumstances, than English. In addition, in some circumstances it is not unusual to call other people by first name and the respectful form or the reverse, e.g. German shop employees often use these constructs if a customer is present. Even within languages, there are differences between groups (older people and people of higher status tending to both use and expect more formal language) and between various aspects of one language. For example, in Dutch, ''u'' is slowly coming into disuse in plural, and thus one could sometimes address a group as ''jullie'' when one would address each member individually as ''u''. In '''Latin American Spanish''', the opposite change has occurred – having lost ''vosotros'', Latin Americans address all groups as ''ustedes'', even if the group is composed of friends whom they would call ''tú''. Catalan vs. Spanish Catalan ''vós'' follows the same concordance rules as the French ''vous'' (verbs in second person plural, adjectives in singular), and ''vostè'' follows the same concordance rules as the Spanish ''usted'' (verbs in 3rd person). ''Vostè'' originated from ''vostra mercè'' as a Calque from Spanish, and replaced the original Catalan form ''vós''. Now ''vós'' is used as a respectful form for elders and respected friends, and ''vostè'' for foreigners and people whom one doesn't know well. ''Vostè'' is more distant than ''vós''. Sometimes people justify the use of ''vostè'' saying, "I only speak of ''tu'' with my friends." Close friends, of course, are ''tú'' and venerable old ladies are ''usted'', but there is a wide grey area in the middle. Even that is not universally true: in the Spanish dialects of some parts of Latin America (for example, in Colombia and Guatemala ), ''tú'' is almost never used, not even with close friends or relatives, which are ''usted'', and ''tú'' is more common in Mexico and California (even advertisements in California use ''tú'' or its possessive ''tu'', for example "En tu canal 73"/Lit. "On your channel 73"). In Argentina, where Rioplatense Spanish is the standard, there's no ''tú'' and the informal pronoun is ''vos'' which is used rather indiscriminately. Czech Traditionally, use of the informal form was limited for relatives and very close friends, for children or to explicitly express social distance. During the second half of the 20th century, use of the informal form grew significantly among coworkers, youth and members of organisations and groups. The formal form is always used in official documents and when dealing with a stranger (especially an older one) as a sign of respect. Capitalizing the formal "''Vy''" is slowly getting obsolete. A variant of the formal form modeled after German "Sie" (''Oni/oni'', ''Jejich/jejich'', verb ''onikat'') was frequently used during 19th century but disappeared. Danish In Denmark, the use of the formal forms of address has diminished significantly over the last twenty years. ''De'' is still used in the written language, in official letters and the like, but the spoken form will be ''du''. For example, a letter from the Inspector of Taxes inviting you a meeting to go through last year's tax return will use ''De'', but during the meeting itself, everyone will say ''du''. The only people you are expected to say ''De'' to are the royal family. Waiters in snobby restaurants might very occasionally use ''De'', but it comes across as toadying for tips. In general, say ''du'' to one person, and ''I'' to more than one. Write ''du'' if you know the name of the person to whom you are writing, and ''De'' if you do not. English Anglo-Saxon (a.k.a. Old English ) had no distinction between formal and informal "you". In Middle English, in the 13th Century, the term "ye" was used as a formal version of "thou" (to superiors or non-intimates) — however, this use was often contextually-dependent (i.e. changing dynamically according to shifting nuances in the relationship between two people), rather than static. By the 17th century, "thou" increasingly acquired connotations of contemptful address, or of addressing one's social inferiors (so the prosecutor in Sir Walter Raleigh 's 1603 trial famously declaimed "I thou thee, thou traitor!"). Therefore the frequency of use of "thou" started to decline, and it was effectively extinct in the everyday speech of many dialects by the early 18th century. Its use is now archaic except in certain regional dialects, usually as "tha", and Modern English today makes no T-V distinction Originally "ye" and "thou" were subject forms, while "you" and "thee" were object forms, but by the 15th Century, "you" started being used as a subject pronoun, and only "thee" survived into Quaker "Plain Speech".
Esperanto The Constructed Language Esperanto is not a T-V-distingushing language. ''Vi'' is the generic second person for both singular and plural, just like ''you'' in English. A formal second person singular pronoun, ''ci'', does exist, however in theory. It is almost never used in practice. Some have imagined ''ci'' as an archaic term that was used before and then fell out of common usage, however this is not true. It has only appeared sometimes in experimental language. In standard Esperanto, ''vi'' has always been used since the beginning. For example, ''ci'' appears in neither the '' Fundamenta Gramatiko '' nor in the '' Unua Libro ''. Source: http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/pronomoj/dua.html French In most regions (Québec and Acadia are the exception, see below), a rigid ''tu-vous'' distinction is upheld. ''Vous'' is employed when encountering any new adult, when addressing to a customer or a patient, or when talking to a person in his/her function (when talking to a doctor as a doctor). In some families, ''Vous'' is also employed when one is speaking to an elder member of the family. ''Tu'' is consensually used when addressing to children. Canadian French Similarly to Danish, (often considered as establishing the normative objectives of standard French in Québec), the use of ''vous'' is spread out even between collaborators. Finally, in familiar language, it is usual to use a "generic ''tu''" (cf. English Generic You ) instead of "''on''", which is used solely as a first-person plural. Finnish Nowadays the use of the informal singular form of address is widespread in all social circles, even among strangers and in business situations. A counter-trend has been reported in recent years, whereby some people are choosing to use the formal plural more often, but in practice it is very unusual to use this form unless addressing the elderly persons or military superiors. As the use of formal plural conveys formal recognition of addressee's status and of polite distance, the formal plural is often used jeeringly or to protest addressee's snobbery. A native speaker may also switch to formal plural when speaking in anger, as an attempt to remain civil. The number is expressed in pronouns (''sinä'' or ''sä'' for singular, or ''te'' for plural), verb inflections, and Possessive Suffix es. For example, imperatives are expressed in the plural, e.g. ''menkää'' "go(pl.)!". Likewise, the ''-nne'' "your" suffix is used instead of the singular ''-s(i)'' suffix. There is number agreement in Finnish, thus you say ''sinä olet'' "you(sg.) are", but ''te olette'' "you(pl.) are". However, this does not extend to words describing the addressee, which are in the singular. For example, ''oletteko te lääkäri?'' "are(pl.) you(pl.) doctor(sg.)?" German In Germany , an old but by no means extinct Custom (called ''Bruderschaft trinken'', "drinking brotherhood") involves two male friends formally splitting a bottle of Wine to celebrate their deciding (mostly proposed by the elder or socially higher-standing of the two) to call one another ''du'' rather than ''Sie''. Note this custom is also adapted among the Swiss-French of the Jura. Duzen and siezen can be used as the verbs of du and Sie. In most parts of Germany there is no clear custom on how to address a group the individual members of which the speaker would address in part as ''du'', in part as ''Sie''. As both plural pronouns, the informal ''ihr'' and the formal ''Sie'', can offend improperly addressed members of the group, circumlocutions that avoid the use of pronouns are often employed in such cases. "Ihr", capitalized, was formerly used in addressing social superiors, unless more informal relations had been established. This form remains until today in some dialects as a respectful way of addressing elders. "Er", capitalized, was similarly used in the second person to address social inferior, as a master addressing a servant. In Internet-Chats and -Forums, however, Germans would rarely use "Sie", although there are exceptions. In German , the respectful form is the same as the third person plural. Greek In Greek, ''συ'' was originally the singular, and ''υμεις'' the plural, with no distinction for honorific or familiar. Paul addressed King Agrippa II as ''συ'' ( Acts 26:2). Later, ''υμεις'' and ''ημεις'' ("we") became too close in pronunciation, and a new plural ''εσεις'' was invented. The ''ε'' of ''εσυ'' is a euphonic prefix. Hungarian In Hungarian , there are numerous, sometimes subtle ways of expressing the T-V distinction:
Nevertheless, formal forms of address are alive and well in Hungarian:
Italian In Italian, ''lei'' or ''Lei'' means "her" (as Accusative form of ''she''). Since in Italian ''egli'' ("he"), ''essi'' ("they") and especially ''ella'' ("she") have fallen out of common use, being replaced by ''lui'' ("him"), ''loro'' ("them") and ''lei'' ("her"), it is also possible to use ''Ella'' as a very polite alternative, but this is very rarely used if ever, and is perceived as very archaic or Bureaucratic . During Fascism , attempts were made to convert the polite form to ''voi'' ("ye"), with some success. ''Voi'' might still be used by some, sometimes (but not necessarily) because of political affiliation with the far right, ''voi'' is also common in southern Italy; furthermore, in some parts of southern Italy both ''voi'' and ''lei'' are used: in this case ''lei'' is more formal than ''voi''. The polite plural form ''Loro'' ("them") is used rarely, as ''voi'' is often perceived already as polite enough, because it was previously used as polite form. ''Lei'' is generally concorded, when necessary, with the gender of the addressee, not therefore necessarily female. It might actually not be present in sentences as Italian is not subject-compulsory, and is then understood by the verb being conjugated in the third person.
The origin of ''Lei'' is probably due to expressions as ''Your majesty/eminence/holiness/...'', where all of these substantives were female in gender ("Maestà/Eminenza/Santità/Signoria/..."). ''Lei'' is normally used in formal settings, with strangers, older or otherwise respected people. Currently, people address strangers of their own age using the informal ''tu'' until about 30. Japanese In Japanese , as in Vietnamese, kinship terms, titles, or names are commonly used instead of first-, second- or third-person pronouns. As in Korean, there are several levels of politeness regarding to social hierarchy, and polite language encompasses not only pronouns, but verb endings and vocabulary as well. (See the articles Japanese Pronouns and Japanese Honorifics for more information.) Korean Much like Japanese, the Korean Language has complex gradations. It uses honorifics and no less than 7 speech levels, making for a cartesian product of 14 basic verb stems. Nevertheless, most levels have all but disappeared from everyday language, so one can simplify this into the basic distinction between ''plain'' and ''polite'' conjugations of verbs and adjectives. In general, the plain form is used when speaking to family, close friends, and social inferiors, and the polite form otherwise. When two Korean-speaking strangers meet where none is the obvious social superior, both use the polite form; when it is determined that one or both can switch to the plain form, one often asks for permission for this switch. The phrase used to describe this is ''mareul nota'' (literally “to release language”). In Korean, the polite form is called ''jondaenmal'' and the plain form is called ''yesanmal'' or ''banmal''. In contrast to the neutral term ''yesanmal'', ''banmal'' (literally “half speech”) often has a rather negative connotation, referring for instance to the plain form that one may deliberately use to provoke someone who should be addressed in the polite form. There is a similar phenomenon called ''nopimmal'', which is honorific speech triggered not by the addressee but by the content of an expression. It is used independently of the speech levels. For example, in ''-hasimnida'' “do(es) …”, the speaker uses the infix ''-si-'' to honour the subject of the sentence and the ending ''-mnida'' to express courtesy or politeness (or simply his distance) towards the addressee. Norwegian In Norwegian, the use of the polite form ''De'' is today all but extinct. Norwegians use exclusively ''du'' in their daily life, and it is said that ''De'' is reserved for the king of Norway, who at the first use would comment "Please, let's use ''du''", thereby limiting the use of ''De'' to once in a lifetime. In practice, ''De'' can be found in written works, translations where an impression of formality must be retained, and theatrical plays. Portuguese Generally speaking, ''tu'' is the familiar form of address used with family, friends, and minors. ''Você'' indicates distance without deference, and tends to be used between people who are, roughly, social equals. ''O senhor''/''a senhora'' (literally "sir"/"madam") are the most ceremonious forms of address. English speakers may find the latter construction akin to the parliamentary convention of referring to fellow legislators in the third person (as "my colleague", "the gentleman", "the member", etc.), although the level of formality conveyed by ''o senhor'' is not as great. In fact, variants of ''o senhor'' and ''a senhora'' with more nuanced meanings such as ''o professor'' ("professor"), ''o colega'' ("colleague") and ''o pai'' ("father") are also employed as personal pronouns. In the plural, there are two main levels of politeness, the informal ''vocês'' and the formal ''os senhores''/''as senhoras''. This threefold scheme is, however, complicated by regional and social variation. For example, in most communities of Brazilian Portuguese speakers, the traditional ''tu''/''você'' distinction has been lost, and the previously formal ''você'' tends to replace the familiar ''tu'' in most cases. On the other hand, in Portugal it's common to use a person's own name as a pronoun more or less equivalent to ''você'', e.g., ''o José'', ''o sr. Silva'', which is unheard of in Brazil. The second person plural pronoun ''vós'', from Latin ''vos'', has fallen into disuse in all but a few regional dialects of Northern Portugal, where it expresses an intermediate degree of formality between ''tu'' and ''você/vocês''. Romanian Romanian ''dumneavoastra'' when used for the second-person singular formal takes plural verbs but singular adjectives, similar to French ''vous''. It originates from ''domnia voastra'' - your lordship. The form ''dumneata'' originating from ''domnia ta'' - thy lordship is less distant than ''dumneavoastra'' and somewhat midway between ''tu'' and ''dumneavoastra'' . Spanish In Spanish, the respectful form requires verbs to be conjugated in the third Person singular; this is because the form ''usted'' evolved from the title ''vuestra merced'' (your grace) which naturally took the third person. Swedish In Swedish there has been a marked difference between usage in Finland-Swedish compared to in Sweden . While the form ''Ni'' (noted as formal above) has remained the common respectful address in Finland-Swedish, it was until the 1960s considered somewhat careless, bullying or rude in Sweden, where addressing in 3rd Person with repetition of ''name and title'' was considered proper and respectful. After that the usage swiftly changed in Sweden, and the 2nd person ''du'' (noted as informal above) came to dominate totally, until recently when in the late 1990s a usage resembling that in German, Finnish or Finland-Swedish has become popular among the youngest adults. It is also now common to see ''Du'' capitalized in places where the formal ''Ni'' would have been used before, such as in printed instructions or on signs. Vietnamese See Also: Vietnamese pronouns Vietnamese does not have a clear concept of pronouns. Any noun can be used to refer to people, especially kinship terms. Pronouns are sometimes not needed in a normal conversation, as the speaker can always refer to him/herself, the audience, and others directly by name, which might seem strange to English speakers. The nouns used to refer to people can reveal not only the level of formality, but also the social relationship between the speaker and the person being referred to, differences in age, and even the attitude of the speaker toward the person being referred to. Ubykh In the extinct Ubykh , the T-V distinction was most notable between a man and his mother-in-law, where the plural form ' supplanted the singular ' very frequently, possibly under the influence of Turkish . The distinction was upheld less frequently in other relationships, but did still occur. RELATED VERBS, NOUNS AND PRONOUNS Some languages have a verb to describe the fact of using either a ''T'' or a ''V'' form. Some also have a related noun or pronoun.
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