| Structuration Theory |
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THE DUALITY OF STRUCTURE Structuration theory aims to avoid extremes of structural or agent Determinism . The balancing of agency and structure is referred to as the ''duality of structure''. For example, Giddens writes: "Human history is created by intentional activities but is not an intended project" (p. 27). For Giddens, structures are rules and resources (sets of transformation relations) organized as properties of social systems. The theory employs a Recursive notion of actions constrained and enabled by structures which are produced and reproduced by that action. Consequently, this theory has been adopted by those with Structuralist inclinations, but who wish to situate such structures in human practice rather than Reify them as an Ideal Type or material property. (This is different, for example, from Actor-network Theory which grants a certain autonomy to Technical Artifact s.) Additionally, the theory of structuration distinguishes between discursive and practical knowledge, recognizes actors as knowledgeable and reflexive, their knowledge as reflexive and situated, and that habitual use becomes institutionalized. A social system can be understood by its structure, modality, and interaction. ''Structure'' is constituted by rules and resources governing and available to agents. (''Authoritative'' resources control persons, whereas ''allocative'' resources control material objects.) The ''modality'' of a structural system is the means by which structures are translated into action. ''Interaction'' is the activity instantiated by the agent acting within the social system. TYPES OF STRUCTURES Giddens identifies three types of structures in social systems, those of ''signification'', ''legitimation'', and ''domination''. These are analytical distinctions, rather than distinct ideal types, that mobilize and reinforce one another.
To understand how they work together, consider how the signification of a concept (e.g., the use of the word "patriot" in political speech) borrows from and contributes to legitimization (e.g., nationalistic norms) and coordinates forms of domination (e.g., a Police State ), from which it in turn gains further force. CHANGE Sewell (1992) provides a useful summary of the theory as well as taking on one of its underspecified aspects: the question "Why are structural changes possible?" He argues changes arises from (p. 16-19):
TECHNOLOGY This theory has been adapted and augmented by researchers interested in the relationship between Technology and social structures (see Theories Of Technology ), such as Information Technology in organizations. DeSanctis and Poole (1990) borrow from Giddens in order to propose an "adaptive structuration theory" with respect to the emergence and use of group decision support systems. In particular, they use Giddens' notion of "modalities of structuration," how social structures are appropriated into concrete situations, to consider how technology is used with respect to its "spirit." Appropriation s are the immediate visible actions that evidence deeper structuration processes and are enacted with moves (DeSanctis and Poole 1992:128). Appropriations may be faithful or unfaithful, be used instrumentally, and be used with various attitudes (1992:129). Orlikowski (1992) borrows Giddens' structuration theory and applies her critique of the duality of structure to technology: "The duality of technology identifies prior views of technology - as either objective force or as socially constructed product - as a false dichotomy" (p. 406). She compares this to previous models (the technological imperative, strategic choice, and technology as a trigger) and considers the importance of meaning, power, norms, and interpretive flexibility within the theory of structuration. Orlikowski (2000) revisits the theory of structuration so as to replace the notion of embedded properties (DeSanctis and Poole 1990, 1992, Orlikowski 1992) for enactment (use). The 'practice lens' permits one to examine how people, as they interact with a technology in their ongoing practices, enact structures which shape their emergent and situated use of that technology. REFERENCES
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