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The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), commonly called ''', 2006 . to use ground-based and space-based systems to protect the United States from attack by strategic Nuclear ballistic missiles. The initiative focused on strategic defense rather than the previous strategic offense doctrine of Mutual Assured Destruction . Though it was never fully implemented, the research and technologies of SDI paved the way for the Anti-ballistic Missile systems of today. "A SPLENDID IDEA" The basis for Star Wars was a Nuclear X-ray Laser designed at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory by a young scientist named Peter Hagelstein who worked with a team called ''O Group'', doing much of the work in the late 1970s and early 1980s. O Group was headed by physicist Lowell Wood, a protégé and friend of ''"the father of the Hydrogen Bomb ,"'' Edward Teller . Ronald Reagan was told of Hagelstein's breakthrough by Teller in 1983, which prompted Reagan's, on speech on March 23 in Florida, ushered in the last phase of the Cold War , bringing the nuclear standoff with the Soviet Union to its most critical point before the collapse of the Soviet Union later that decade. The concept for the space-based portion initially was to use lasers to shoot down incoming Soviet Intercontinental Ballistic Missile s (ICBM) armed with Nuclear Warheads . Eminent physicist Hans Bethe went to Livermore and strenuously interrogated Hagelstein about the correctness of his theory. After much work showing multiple mathematic calculations on a nearby blackboard, the young scientist was able to convince Bethe of the completeness of his ideas, prompting Bethe to state that it was "a splendid idea," one "which has been quite carefully thought out," and that it was the only truly good one being studied at Livermore at that time, which was 1982. Later, Bethe attacked it on political grounds (see below). PROJECT AND PROPOSALS In 1984, the , 2006 . Research and development initiated by the SDIO created significant technological advances in computer systems, component miniaturization, sensors and missile systems that form the basis for current systems. Initially, the program focused on large scale systems designed to defeat a Soviet offensive strike. However, as the threat diminished, the program shifted towards smaller systems designed to defeat limited or accidental launches. By 1987, the SDIO developed a national missile defense concept called the Strategic Defense System Phase I Architecture. This concept consisted of ground and space based sensors and weapons, as well as a central battle management system. , 2006 . The Ground-based Systems Operational Today trace their roots back to this concept. In his 1991 , 2006 . In 1993, the Clinton administration, further shifted the focus to ground-based interceptor missiles and theater scale systems, forming the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (BMDO) and closing the SDIO. Ballistic missile defense has been revived by the George W. Bush administration as the National Missile Defense and Ground-based Midcourse Defense. GROUND-BASED PROGRAMS Extended Range Interceptor (ERINT) The ERINT program was part of SDI's Theater Missile Defense Program and was an extension of the Flexible Lightweight Agile Guided Experiment (FLAGE), which included developing hit-to-kill technology and demonstrating the guidance accuracy of a small, agile, radar-homing vehicle. FLAGE scored a direct hit against a MGM-52 Lance missile in flight, at White Sands Missile Range in 1987. ERINT was a prototype missile similar to the FLAGE, but it used a new solid-propellant rocket motor allowing it to fly faster and higher than FLAGE. Under BMDO, ERINT was later chosen as the , 2006 . Homing Overlay Experiment (HOE) It was the first system tested by the Army that employed hit-to-kill, four test launches were conducted in 1983 and 1984. The first three tests failed because of guidance and sensor problems, but the fourth test succeeded. This technology was later used by the SDIO and expanded into the Exoatmospheric Reentry-vehicle Interception System (ERIS) program. , 2006 . Exoatmospheric Reentry-vehicle Interception System (ERIS) Developed by Lockheed as part of the ground based interceptor portion of SDI beginning in 1985. At least two tests occurred in the early 1990s. This system was never deployed, but the technology of the system were used in the , 2006 . DIRECTED-ENERGY WEAPON (DEW) PROGRAMS See Also: Directed-energy weapon X-ray laser The initial focus of the project was to be a curtain of X-ray lasers powered by nuclear explosions. The curtain was to be deployed, first by a series of missiles launched from submarines during the critical seconds following a Soviet attack, then later by satellites and powered by nuclear warheads built into the satellites - in theory the energy from the warhead detonation was to pump a series of laser emitters in the missiles or satellites and produce an impenetrable barrier to incoming warheads. However, the initial test on , 2006 ., known as the Cabra event , which was performed in an underground shaft, resulted in marginally positive readings that could be dismissed as a faulty detector. Since a nuclear explosion was the power source, the detector was destroyed during the experiment and the results could not be confirmed. Critics often cite the X-ray laser system as the primary focus of SDI and its apparent failure becomes a main reason to oppose SDI. However, the laser was never more than one of the many systems being researched for ballistic missile defense. Despite the apparent failure of the Cabra test, the long term legacy of the X-ray laser program is the knowledge gained while conducting the research. Several spin-offs include a laboratory x-ray laser for biological imaging and creation of 3D holograms of living organisms, creation of advanced materials like , 2006 . Chemical laser See Also: Chemical laser Beginning in 1985, the Air Force tested a , 2006 . Neutral Particle Beam In July 1989, the Beam Experiments Aboard a Rocket (BEAR) program launched a sounding rocket containing a neutral , 2006 . Laser and mirror experiments The High Precision Tracking Experiment (HPTE), launched with the Space Shuttle Discovery on STS-51-G , was tested June 21 , 1985 when a Hawaii-based low-power laser successfully tracked the experiment and bounced the laser off of the HPTE mirror. The Relay mirror experiment (RME), launched in February 1990, demonstrated critical technologies for space-based relay mirrors to be used with an SDI , 2006 . Launched on the same rocket as the RME, the Low-power Atmospheric Compensation Experiment (LACE) satellite was built by the , 2006 . The research efforts of LACE eventually led to civilian uses such as Adaptive Optics , a technique used to remove atmospheric distortions. SPACE-BASED PROGRAMS Space-Based Interceptor (SBI) Groups of interceptors were to be housed in orbital modules. The initial prototypes eventually evolved into the Brilliant Pebbles program. , 2006 . Brilliant Pebbles Brilliant Pebbles was a non-nuclear system of satellite-based, watermelon-sized,, 2006 . It was designed to operate in conjunction with the Brilliant Eyes sensor system and would have detected and destroyed missiles without any external guidance. John H. Nuckolls, director of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory from 1988 to 1994, described the system as “The crowning achievement of the Strategic Defense Initiative”. The technologies developed for SDI were used in numerous later projects. For example, the sensors and cameras that were developed for Brilliant Pebbles became components of the , 2006 . Though regarded as one of the most capable SDI systems, the Brilliant Pebbles program was canceled in 1994 by the BMDO., 2006 . However, it is being reevaluated for possible future use by the MDA. SENSOR PROGRAMS SDIO sensor research encompassed visible light, ultra-violet, infrared and RADAR technologies, and eventually led to the Clementine mission though that mission occurred just after the program transitioned to the BMDO. Like other parts of SDI the sensor system initially was very large scale, but after the Soviet threat diminished it was scaled down. Boost Surveillance and Tracking System (BSTS) Initially part of the SDIO in the late-80's, the BSTS was designed to assist detection of missile launches especially during the boost phase. However, once the SDI program shifted toward theater missile defense, the system left SDIO control in the early 90's and was transferred to the Air Force. , 2006 . Space Surveillance and Tracking System (SSTS) SSTS was a system originally designed for tracking ballistic missiles during their mid-course phase. It was designed to work in conjunction with BSTS, but was later scaled down for the Brilliant Eyes program. , 2006 . Brilliant Eyes Brilliant Eyes was a simpler derivative of the Space Surveillance and Tracking System (SSTS) that focused on theater ballistic missiles rather than ICBMs and was meant to operate in conjunction with the Brilliant Pebbles system. Brilliant Eyes was renamed Space and Missile Tracking System (SMTS) and scaled back further under BMDO, and in the late 1990s it became the low earth orbit component of the Air Force's Space Based Infrared System (SBIRS). , 2006 . CONTROVERSY AND CRITICISM SDI was first dubbed "Star Wars" by opponent Dr. Carol Rosin , a former spokeswoman of Wernher Von Braun who was instrumental in the development of Ballistic Missile s. Some critics used that term derisively, implying it is an impractical Science Fiction fantasy, but supporters have adopted the usage as well on the grounds that yesterday's science fiction is often tomorrow's engineering. Ashton Carter , a fellow at MIT , assessed SDI for Congress in 1984. He said there were a number of difficulties in creating an adequate missile defense shield, with or without lasers. He said X-rays have a limited scope because they become diffused through the atmosphere, much like the beam of a flash light spreading outward in all directions. This means the X-rays needed to be close to the Soviet Union, especially during the critical few minutes of the booster phase, in order for the Soviet missiles to be both detectable to radar and targeted by the lasers themselves. Opponents disagreed, saying advances in technology, such as using very strong laser beams, and by "bleaching" the column of air surrounding the laser beam, could increase the distance that the X-ray would reach to successfully hit its target. Physicist Hans Bethe , who worked with Teller on both the atom bomb and the hydrogen bomb, both at Los Alamos , claimed a laser defense shield was unfeasible. He said that a defensive system was costly and difficult to build, but simple to destroy, and claimed that the Soviets could easily use thousands of decoys to overwhelm it during a nuclear attack. He believed that the only way to stop the threat of nuclear war was through diplomacy and dismissed the idea of a ''technical solution'' to the Cold War, saying that a defense shield could be viewed as threatening because it would limit or destroy Soviet offensive capabilities while leaving the American offense intact. In March 1984, Bethe coauthored a 106-page report for the Union Of Concerned Scientists that concluded "the X-ray laser offers no prospect of being a useful component in a system for ballistic missile defense." Teller countered that Bethe and the other anti-defense activists could not have it both ways. Teller said Bethe had helped him usher in the nuclear age, had become opposed to nuclear weapons and afraid of nuclear war. But, Bethe was also opposed to stopping the threat of offensive capabilities through massive defensive programs. Teller testified before Congress that Bethe, "instead of objecting on scientific and technical grounds, which he thoroughly understands, he now objects on the grounds of politics, on grounds of military feasibility of military deployment, on other grounds of difficult issues which are quite outside the range of his professional cognizance or mine." Supporters of SDI hail it for contributing to or at least accelerating the fall of the Soviet Union by the , 2006 . While SDI was a disagreement, the Reykjavik Summit led to the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty , which some have claimed was an outgrowth of Gorbachev's fear of SDI. Opponents of the program say that Mikhail Gorbachev's reforms were the cause of the USSR's collapse and that SDI was an unrealistic and expensive program. FICTION AND POPULAR CULTURE Because of public awareness of the program and its controversial nature, SDI has been the subject of many fictional and pop culture references. This is not intended to be a complete list of those references. In novels:
In computer games:
In motion pictures:
In music:
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