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''Scientific method'' refers to a body of techniques for the investigation of Phenomena and the acquisition of new Knowledge of the Natural World , as well as the correction and integration of previous knowledge, based on Observable , Empirical , measurable evidence, and subject to Laws of Reasoning . Although specialized procedures vary from one field of inquiry to another, there are identifiable features that distinguish scientific inquiry from other methods of developing knowledge. Specific Hypotheses are formed to propose explanations for Natural phenomena and Experiment al Studies test the predictions for accuracy in order to make increasingly dependable Predictions of future results. Hypotheses in a given field of inquiry are logically bound together by a wider Theory that assists researchers in forming new hypotheses, as well as in placing groups of specific hypotheses into a broader context of understanding. Among other facets shared by the various fields of inquiry is the conviction that the process must be Objective so that the Scientist does not Bias the interpretation of the results or change the results outright. The scientific method also may involve attempts, if possible and appropriate, to achieve control over the factors involved in the area of inquiry, which may in turn be manipulated to test new hypotheses in order to gain further knowledge. ELEMENTS OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD There are a number of different ways of outlining the basic method shared by all of the fields of scientific inquiry. The following examples are typical classifications of the most important components of the method on which there is very wide agreement in the Scientific Community and among Philosophers Of Science , each of which are subject only to marginal disagreements about a few very specific aspects. The following is a more specific and technical description of the hypothesis/testing method, discussion of which follows below: The element of Observation includes both unconditioned observations (prior to any theory) as well as the observation of the experiment and its results. The element of Experimental Design must consider the elements of hypothesis development, prediction, and the effects and limits of observation because all of these elements are typically necessary for a valid experiment. Imre Lakatos and Thomas Kuhn had done extensive work on the "theory laden" character of observation. Kuhn (1961) maintained that the scientist generally has a theory in mind before designing and undertaking experiments so as to make empirical observations, and that the "route from theory to measurement can almost never be travelled backward". This perspective implies that the way in which theory is tested is dictated by the nature of the theory itself which led Kuhn (1961, p. 166) to argue that "once it has been adopted by a profession ... no theory is recognized to be testable by any quantitative tests that it has not already passed". Each element of scientific method is subject to Peer Review for possible mistakes. These activities do not describe all that scientists do ( See Below ) but apply mostly to experimental sciences (e.g., physics, chemistry). The elements above are often taught in The Educational System 1 . The scientific method is not a recipe: it requires intelligence, imagination, and creativity. Further, it is an ongoing cycle, constantly developing more useful, accurate and comprehensive models. For example, when Einstein developed the Special and General Theories of Relativity, he did not in any way refute or discount Newton's ''Principia''. On the contrary, if one reduces out the astronomically large, the vanishingly small, and the extremely fast from Einstein's theories — all phenomena that Newton could not have observed — one is left with Newton's equations. Einstein's theories are expansions and refinements of Newton's theories, and the observations that increase our confidence in them also increase our confidence in Newton's approximations to them. The Keystones of Science project, sponsored by the journal or Gene Loss?''. A linearized, pragmatical scheme of the four above points is sometimes offered as a guideline for proceeding: The iterative cycle inherent in this step-by-step methodology goes from point 3 to 6 back to 3 again. While this schema is currently accepted as standard scientific method, it should also be noted that a number of philosophers, historians and sociologists of science (particularly Paul Feyerabend and advocates of the Strong Programme ) claim that it has little relation to the ways science is actually practiced. DNA example : Each element of scientific method is illustrated below by an example from the discovery of the structure of DNA :
: The examples are continued in "Evaluations And Iterations" with '' DNA/iterations ''. Characterizations The scientific method depends upon increasingly more sophisticated characterizations of subjects of the investigation. (The ''subjects'' can also be called '' Lists Of Unsolved Problems '' or the ''unknowns''.) For example, Benjamin Franklin correctly characterized St. Elmo's Fire as Electrical in Nature , but it has taken a long series of experiments and theory to establish this. While seeking the pertinent properties of the subjects, this careful thought may also entail some definitions and observations; the Observations often demand careful Measurements and/or counting. The systematic, careful collection of measurements or counts of relevant quantities is often the critical difference between pseudo-sciences, such as alchemy, and a science, such as chemistry. Scientific measurements taken are usually tabulated, graphed, or mapped, and statistical manipulations, such as Correlation and Regression , performed on them. The measurements might be made in a controlled setting, such as a laboratory, or made on more or less inaccessible or unmanipulatable objects such as stars or human populations. The measurements often require specialized scientific instruments such as thermometers, spectroscopes, or voltmeters, and the progress of a scientific field is usually intimately tied to their invention and development. Measurements demand the use of '' Operational Definition s'' of relevant quantities. That is, a scientific quantity is described or defined by how it is measured, as opposed to some more vague, inexact or "idealized" definition. For example, Electrical Current , measured in amperes, may be operationally defined in terms of the mass of silver deposited in a certain time on an electrode in an electrochemical device that is described in some detail. The operational definition of a thing often relies on comparisons with standards: the operational definition of "mass" ultimately relies on the use of an artifact, such as a certain kilogram of platinum-iridium kept in a laboratory in France. The scientific definition of a term sometimes differs substantially from their Natural Language usage. For example, Mass and Weight overlap in meaning in common discourse, but have distinct meanings in physics. Scientific quantities are often characterized by their Units Of Measure which can later be described in terms of conventional Physical Unit s when communicating the work. Measurements in scientific work are also usually accompanied by estimates of their Uncertainty . The uncertainty is often estimated by making repeated measurements of the desired quantity. Uncertainties may also be calculated by consideration of the uncertainties of the individual underlying quantities that are used. Counts of things, such as the number of people in a nation at a particular time, may also have an uncertainty due to limitations of the method used. Counts may only represent a sample of desired quantities, with an uncertainty that depends upon the sampling method used and the number of samples taken. New theories sometimes arise upon realizing that certain terms had not previously been sufficiently clearly defined. For example, Albert Einstein's first paper on Relativity begins by defining Simultaneity and the means for determining Length . These ideas were skipped over by Isaac Newton with, "''I do not define Time , space, place and Motion , as being well known to all.''" Einstein's paper then demonstrates that they (viz., absolute time and length independent of motion) were approximations. Francis Crick cautions us that when characterizing a subject, however, it can be premature to define something when it remains ill-understood. In Crick's study of consciousness, he actually found it easier to study awareness in the Visual System , rather than to study Free Will, for example. His cautionary example was the gene; the gene was much more poorly understood before Watson and Crick's pioneering discovery of the structure of DNA; it would have been counterproductive to spend much time on the definition of the gene, before them. |
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