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Radio Frequency Identification ('''RFID''') is an Automatic Identification method, relying on storing and remotely retrieving data using devices called RFID tags or Transponder s. An RFID tag is a small object that can be attached to or incorporated into a product, animal, or person. RFID tags contain Silicon Chips and Antennas to enable them to receive and respond to Radio -frequency queries from an RFID Transceiver . Passive tags require no internal power source, whereas active tags require a power source. HISTORY OF RFID TAGS ]] In 1945 Léon Theremin invented an espionage tool for the Soviet government which retransmitted incident radio waves with audio information. Even though this device was a passive Covert Listening Device , not an identification tag, it has been attributed as the first known device and a predecessor to RFID technology. The technology used in RFID has been around since the early 1920s according to one source (although the same source states that RFID ''systems'' have been around just since the late 1960s ). [http://www.aimglobal.org/technologies/rfid/resources/shrouds_of_time.pdf A more similar technology, the to identify airplanes as friend or foe. Another early work exploring RFID is the landmark 1948 paper by Harry Stockman, titled "Communication by Means of Reflected Power" (Proceedings of the IRE, pp 1196–1204, October 1948 ). Stockman predicted that "...considerable research and development work has to be done before the remaining basic problems in reflected-power communication are solved, and before the field of useful applications is explored." Mario Cardullo claims that his in 1973 was the first true ancestor of modern RFID; a passive radio transponder with memory. {Link without Title} TYPES OF RFID TAGS RFID tags can be either ''passive'', ''semi-passive'' (also known as ''semi-active''), or ''active''. Passive Passive RFID tags have no internal power supply. The minute electrical current induced in the antenna by the incoming radio frequency signal provides just enough power for the CMOS integrated circuit (IC) in the tag to power up and transmit a response. Most passive tags signal by ) up to a few meters ( EPC and ISO 18000-6 ) depending on the chosen radio frequency and antenna design/size. Due to their simplicity in design they are also suitable for manufacture with a printing process for the antennas. Passive RFID tags do not require batteries, and can be much smaller and have an unlimited life span. Non-silicon tags made from polymer semiconductors are currently being developed by several companies globally. Simple laboratory printed polymer tags operating at 13.56 MHz were demonstrated in 2005 by both PolyIC (Germany) and Philips (The Netherlands). If successfully commercialized, polymer tags will be roll printable, like a magazine, and much less expensive than silicon-based tags. Because passive tags are cheaper to manufacture and have no battery, the majority of RFID tags in existence are of the passive variety. As Of 2005 , the lowest cost EPC Gen 2 tags available on the market are as low as 7.2 cents each in volumes of 10 million units or more. Current demand for RFID integrated circuit chips is expected to grow rapidly based on these prices. Semi-passive Semi-passive RFID tags are very similar to passive tags except for the addition of a small battery. This battery allows the tag IC to be constantly powered, which removes the need for the aerial to be designed to collect power from the incoming signal. Aerials can therefore be optimized for the backscattering signal. Semi-passive RFID tags are faster in response and therefore stronger in reading ratio compared to passive tags. Active Unlike passive and semi-passive RFID tags, active RFID tags have their own internal power source which is used to power any ICs that generate the outgoing signal. Active RFID tags are typically ''beacon'' tags but are also available as ''response'' tags. Beacon tags are often called ''beacon'' or ''broadcast'' because they transmit their tag data and ID at a predetermined fixed interval. Whereas, “response” tags only respond when an active RFID reader requests the tags to transmit. Some active RFID tags also have advanced features such as temperature logging which have been used in concrete maturity monitoring or to monitor the temperature of perishable goods. Other uses for active RFID tags is in ''pick-to-light'' applications where active RFID tags with LEDs can be flashed to guide the user to a specific item. They may have longer range and larger memories than passive tags, as well as the ability to store additional information sent by the transceiver. To economize power consumption, many beacon tags operate at fixed intervals. At present, the smallest active tags are about the size of a coin. Many active tags have practical ranges of ten of meters, and a battery life of up to 5 years. THE RFID SYSTEM An RFID system may consist of several components: tags, tag readers, edge servers, middleware, and application software. The purpose of an RFID system is to enable data to be transmitted by a mobile device, called a tag, which is read by an RFID reader and processed according to the needs of a particular application. The data transmitted by the tag may provide identification or location information, or specifics about the product tagged, such as price, color, date of purchase, etc. The use of RFID in tracking and access applications first appeared during the 1980s . RFID quickly gained attention because of its ability to track moving objects. As the technology is refined, more pervasive and possibly invasive uses for RFID tags are in the works. In a typical RFID system, individual objects are equipped with a small, inexpensive tag. The tag contains a transponder with a digital memory chip that is given a unique Electronic Product Code . The interrogator, an antenna packaged with a transceiver and decoder, emits a signal activating the RFID tag so it can read and write data to it. When an RFID tag passes through the electromagnetic zone, it detects the reader's activation signal. The reader decodes the data encoded in the tag's integrated circuit (silicon chip) and the data is passed to the host computer. The application software on the host processes the data, often employing Physical Markup Language (PML). Take the example of books in a library. Security gates can detect whether or not a book has been properly checked out of the library. When users return items, the security bit is re-set and the item record in the Integrated Library System is automatically updated. In some RFID solutions a return receipt can be generated. At this point, materials can be roughly sorted into bins by the return equipment. Inventory wands provide a finer detail of sorting. This tool can be used to put books into shelf-ready order. CURRENT USAGE
RFID in livestock
RFID mandates . {Link without Title} . Due to the size of these two organizations, their RFID mandates impact thousands of companies worldwide. The deadlines have been extended several times because many vendors face significant difficulties implementing RFID systems. In practice, the successful read rates currently run only 80%, due to radio wave attenuation caused by the products and packaging. In time it is expected that even small companies will be able to place RFID tags on their outbound shipments. Since January, 2005, Wal-Mart has required its top 100 suppliers to apply RFID labels to all shipments. To meet this requirement, vendors use RFID printer/encoders to label cases and pallets that require EPC tags for Wal-Mart . These Smart Labels are produced by embedding RFID inlays inside the label material, and then printing bar code and other visible information on the surface of the label. Human implants Implantable RFID chips designed for animal tagging are now being used in humans as well. An early experiment with RFID implants was conducted by British professor of Spain and in Rotterdam, The Netherlands, uses an implantable VeriChip to identify their VIP customers, who in turn use it to pay for drinks {Link without Title} . In 2004, the Mexican Attorney General's office implanted 18 of its staff members with the Verichip to control access to a secure data room. (This number has been variously mis-reported as 160 or 180 staff members, though the correct number is actually 18. {Link without Title} ) Amal Graafstra {Link without Title} , a Washington native and business owner had a RFID chip implanted in his left hand in early 2005 . The chip was 12 Mm long by 2 mm in diameter and has a basic read range of two inches (5 cm). The implant procedure was conducted by a cosmetic surgeon, although the name of the doctor was not released. When asked what he planned to do with the implant Graafstra responded: ''Because I'm writing my own software and soldering up my own stuff, pretty much anything I want. Graafstra has since written a book called RFID Toys {Link without Title} , which details how hobbyists and tech-types can create and build their own RFID enabled projects and solutions including: computer login, front door access, car and vehicle access, object tracking, etc. Security experts are warning against using RFID for authenticating people due to the risk of Identity Theft. For instance a Mafia Fraud Attack would make it possible for an attacker to steal the identity of a person in real-time. Due to the resource-constraints of RFIDs it is virtually impossible to protect against such attack models as this would require complex distance-binding protocols. POTENTIAL USES RFID tags are often envisioned as a replacement for UPC or EAN barcodes, having a number of important advantages over the older barcode technology. They may not ever completely replace barcodes, due in part to their higher cost and in other part to the advantage of more than one independent data source on the same object. The new EPC , along with several other schemes, is widely available at reasonable cost. The storage of data associated with tracking items will require many Terabytes on all levels. The escape is filtering, as nobody will save data without defined purpose. It is likely that goods will be tracked preferably by the pallet using RFID tags, and at package level with Universal Product Code ( UPC ) or EAN from unique barcodes. The unique identity in any case is a mandatory requirement for RFID tags, despite special choice of the numbering scheme. RFID tag data capacity is big enough that any tag will have a unique code, while current bar codes are limited to a single type code for all instances of a particular product. The uniqueness of RFID tags means that a product may be individually tracked as it moves from location to location, finally ending up in the consumer's hands. This may help companies to combat theft and other forms of product loss. Moreover, the tracing back of products is an important feature that gets well supported with RFID tags containing not just a unique identity of the tag but also the serial number of the object. This may help companies to cope with quality deficiencies and resulting recall campaigns, but also contributes to concern over post-sale tracking and profiling of consumers. It has also been proposed to use RFID for POS store checkout to replace the Cashier with an automatic system which needs no barcode scanning. However this is not likely to be possible without a significant reduction in the cost of current tags and changes in the operational process around POS. There is some research taking place, however, this is some years from reaching fruition. Active RFID tags also have the potential to function as low-cost remote sensors that broadcast Telemetry back to a base station. Applications could include sensing of road conditions by implanted beacons, weather reports, and noise level monitoring. Gen 2 An organization called in the identification of any item in the Supply Chain for companies in any industry, anywhere in the world. The organization's board of governors of EPCglobal includes representatives from GS1 , GS1-US , EAN , UCC , The Gillette Company , Procter & Gamble , Wal-Mart , Hewlett-Packard , Johnson & Johnson , Checkpoint Systems and Auto-ID Labs and others. The EPCglobal gen 2 standard was approved in December 2004 , and is likely to form the backbone of RFID tag standards moving forward. This was approved after a contention from Intermec that the standard may infringe a number of their RFID related patents. It was decided that the standard itself did not infringe their patents, but it may be necessary to pay royalties to Intermec if the tag were to be read in a particular manner. EPC Gen2 is short for EPCglobal UHF Generation 2. EPC standardisation is headed to become adopted by ISO, e.g. in accordance with complementary standardisation based on the ISO standard 18000-6. EPC Gen 2 as well as the majority of RFID tags in existence are of the passive variety. As of 2005, these tags cost an average of Euro 0.20 at high volumes. Today, as universal RFID tagging of individual products become commercially viable at very large volumes, the lowest cost EPC Gen 2 tags available on the market are as low as 7.2 cents each in volumes of 10 million units or more. Current demand for RFID integrated circuit chips is expected to grow rapidly based on these prices. Patient identification In July 2004 , the Food And Drug Administration issued a ruling that essentially begins a final review process that will determine whether hospitals can use RFID systems to identify patients and/or permit relevant hospital staff to access Medical Records . The use of RFID to prevent mixups between Sperm and Ova in IVF clinics is also being considered {Link without Title} . In October 2004, the FDA approved the country's first RFID chips that can be implanted in humans. The 134 kHz RFID chips, from VeriChip Corp., a subsidiary of Applied Digital Solutions Inc., can incorporate personal medical information and could save lives and limit injuries from errors in medical treatments, according to the company. The FDA approval was disclosed during a conference call with investors. Shortly after the approval, authors and anti-RFID activists Katherine Albrecht and Liz McIntyre discovered a warning letter from the FDA that spelled out serious health risks associated with the VeriChip . According to the FDA, these include "adverse tissue reaction," "migration of the implanted transponder," "failure of implanted transponder," "electrical hazards" and "magnetic resonance imaging [MRI] incompatibilty." Some in-home uses, such as allowing a Refrigerator to track the expiration dates of the food it contains, have also been proposed, but few have moved beyond the prototype stage. Traffic and positioning The most common use of RFID in traffic is for Electronic Toll Collection , normally using the Dedicated Short Range Communication ( DSRC ). Another proposed application is the use of RFID for intelligent traffic signs called ''Road Beacons'' or "RBS" {Link without Title} . Such solutions are based in the use of RFID transponders buried under the pavement that are read by an onboard unit (OBU) in the vehicle which filters the different traffic signs and translates them into voice messages or gives a virtual projection using a HUD (Heads-Up Display). Its main advantage compared with satellite-based systems is that road beacons do not need digital mapping associated with them, as long as they provide traffic sign symbol and actual position information by themselves. RFID road beacons are also useful for complementing satellite positioning systems in places like tunnels or indoors. REGULATION AND STANDARDIZATION There is no global public body that governs the frequencies used for RFID. In principle, every country can set its own rules for this. The main bodies governing frequency allocation for RFID are:
Low-frequency (LF: 125 - 134.2 kHz and 140 - 148.5 kHz) and high-frequency (HF: 13.56 MHz) RFID tags can be used globally without a license. Ultra-high-frequency (UHF: 868 MHz-928 MHz) cannot be used globally as there is no single global standard. In North America, UHF can be used unlicensed for 908 - 928 MHz, but restrictions exist for transmission power. In Europe, UHF is under consideration for 865.6 - 867.6 MHz. Its usage is currently unlicensed for 869.40 - 869.65 MHz only, but restrictions exist for transmission power. The North American UHF standard is not accepted in France as it interferes with its military bands. For China and Japan, there is no regulation for the use of UHF. Each application for UHF in these countries needs a site license, which needs to be applied for at the local authorities, and can be revoked. For Australia and New Zealand, 918 - 926 MHz are unlicensed, but restrictions exist for transmission power. These frequencies are known as the ISM Band s (Industrial Medical Scientific). The return signal of the tag may still cause Interference for other radio users {Link without Title} . Additional regulations exist regarding health and environmental issues {Link without Title} . For example, in Europe, the ). Some standards that have been made regarding RFID technology include:
A primary security concern surrounding RFID technology is the illicit tracking of RFID tags. Tags which are world-readable pose a risk to both personal location privacy and corporate/military security. Such concerns have been raised with respect to the is providing RFIDs with built-in patented privacy enhancing protocols and multiple keys to transfer control at point of purchase to the consumer, allowing the user to control leakage of data and prevent tracking and cloning {Link without Title} . A second class of defense uses cryptography to prevent tag cloning. Some tags use a form of " Rolling Code " scheme, wherein the tag identifier information changes after each scan, thus reducing the usefulness of observed responses. More sophisticated devices engage in Challenge-response Protocol s where the tag interacts with the reader. In these protocols, secret tag information is never sent over the insecure communication channel between tag and reader. Rather, the reader issues a challenge to the tag, which responds with a result computed using a cryptographic circuit keyed with some secret value. Such protocols may be based on Symmetric or Public Key Cryptography . Cryptographically-enabled tags typically have dramatically higher cost and power requirements than simpler equivalents, and as a result, deployment of these tags is much more limited. This cost/power limitation has led some manufacturers to implement cryptographic tags using substantially weakened, or proprietary encryption schemes, which do not necessarily resist sophisticated attack. For example, the Exxon-Mobil Speedpass uses a cryptographically-enabled tag manufactured by Texas Instruments , called the Digital Signature Transponder (DST), which incorporates a weak, proprietary Encryption scheme to perform a challenge-response protocol. In 2005 , researchers from RSA Labs and Johns Hopkins University reverse engineered the algorithm and were able to clone Speedpass tags {Link without Title} . Still other cryptographic protocols attempt to achieve privacy against unauthorized readers, though these protocols are largely in the research stage. One major challenge in securing RFID tags is a shortage of computational resources within the tag. Standard cryptographic techniques require more resources than are available in most low cost RFID devices. Many security measures have been proposed for RFID in the academic literature. Several low strength cryptographic solutions have been proposed, including hash locks, backward channel XORing, third party privacy agents, and LPN authentication [http://lasecwww.epfl.ch/~gavoine/rfid/]. RSA Security has patented a prototype device that locally jams RFID signals by interrupting a standard Collision Avoidance protocol, allowing the user to prevent identification if desired. [http://www.rsasecurity.com/rsalabs/node.asp?id=2115]. Various policy measures have also been proposed, such as marking RFID tagged objects with an industry standard label. RFID LEGISLATION
:PURPOSE: Restrict the way businesses and libraries in California use RFID tags attached to consumer products or using an RFID reader that could be used to identify an individual. ::Defeated by members of the California state assembly on June 25, 2005.
:PURPOSE: Requires labels regarding use and purpose of RFID on consumer products; requires the ability to remove tags; and restricts info on tags to inventory and like purposes.
:PURPOSE: Creates a task force to study privacy and other issues related to RFID and report on whether legislation is needed.
:PURPOSE: Requires a conspicuous label on consumer packaging with RFID disclosing existence of the tag and that the tag can transmit a unique ID before and after purchase.
:PURPOSE: Requires manufacturers, retailers and others to ensure placement of a label regarding existence of RFID on product prior to sale.
:PURPOSE: Requires written or verbal notice of existence of a tracking device on any product prior to sale.
:PURPOSE: Requires businesses purveying tagged items to post notices on their premises and labels on the products; requires removal or deactivation of tag at point of sale.
:PURPOSE: Prohibits state or local government from using RFID to track movement or identity of employees, students or clients or others as a condition of a benefit or service
:PURPOSE: Prohibits requiring a person to receive implant of an RFID chip.
:PURPOSE: Requires conspicuous labeling of goods containing RFID disclosing existence of RFID and that it can transmit unique information.
:PURPOSE: Amends computer crime law to include RFID.
:PURPOSE: Prohibits school district from requiring student to use an RFID device for identification; requires school to provide alternative method to those who object to RFID. CONTROVERSY How would you like it if, for instance, one day you realized your underwear was reporting on your whereabouts? ::— California State Senator Debra Bowen , at a 2003 hearing {Link without Title} The use of RFID technology has engendered considerable controversy and even product Boycott s by consumer privacy advocates such as Katherine Albrecht and Liz McIntyre of CASPIAN who refer to RFID tags as " Spychips ". The four main Privacy concerns regarding RFID are:
Most concerns revolve around the fact that RFID tags affixed to products remain functional even after the products have been purchased and taken home, and thus can be used for Surveillance and other nefarious purposes unrelated to their supply chain inventory functions. Although RFID tags are only officially intended for short-distance use, they can be interrogated from greater distances by anyone with a high- Gain antenna, potentially allowing the contents of a house to be scanned at a distance, something distinctly Orwellian in nature. Even short range scanning is a concern if all the items detected are logged in a Database every time a person passes a reader, or if it is done for nefarious reasons (e.g., a Mugger using a hand-held scanner to obtain an instant assessment of the wealth of potential victims). With permanent RFID serial numbers, an item leaks unexpected information about a person even after disposal; for example, items that are resold or given away can enable mapping of a person's Social Network . Another privacy issue is due to RFID's support for a Singulation (anti-collision) Protocol . This is the means by which a reader enumerates all the tags responding to it without them mutually interfering. The structure of the most common version of this protocol is such that all but the last Bit of each tag's Serial Number can be deduced by passively Eavesdropping on just the ''reader's'' part of the protocol. Because of this, whenever RFID tags are near to readers, the distance at which a tag's signal can be eavesdropped is irrelevant; what counts is the distance at which the much more powerful reader can be received. Just how far this can be depends on the type of the reader, but in the extreme case some readers have a maximum power output (4 W ) that could be received from tens of kilometres away. The potential for privacy violations with RFID was demonstrated by its use in a Pilot Program by The Gillette Company , which conducted a "smart shelf" test at a Tesco in Cambridge , England. They automatically Photograph ed shoppers taking RFID-tagged Safety Razor s off the shelf, to see if the technology could be used to deter Shoplifting . This trial resulted in a [http://www.boycottGillette.com consumer boycott against Gillette that is still in effect today. There was also a protest of Tesco . A boycott against Tesco for its involvement with item-level RFID tagging has been in effect since early 2005. [http://www.boycotttesco.com/] In another incident, uncovered by the Chicago Sun-Times , shelves in a Wal-Mart in Broken Arrow , Oklahoma , were equipped with readers to track the Max Factor Lipfinity Lipstick containers stacked on them. Webcam images of the shelves were viewed 750 miles (1200 km) away by Procter & Gamble researchers in Cincinnati , Ohio , who could tell when lipsticks were removed from the shelves and observe the shoppers in action. In January in Germany , where an RFID pilot project was implemented. It was uncovered by accident that METRO "Payback" customer Loyalty Card s contained RFID tags with customer IDs, a fact that was disclosed neither to customers receiving the cards, nor to this group of privacy advocates. This happened despite assurances by METRO that no customer identification data was tracked and all RFID usage was clearly disclosed. {Link without Title} The controversy was furthered by the accidental exposure of a proposed Auto-ID Consortium Public Relations Campaign that was designed to "neutralize opposition" and get consumers to "resign themselves to the inevitability of it" whilst merely pretending to address their concerns. {Link without Title} The standard proposed by EPCglobal includes privacy related guidelines for the use of RFID-based and privacy groups. In 2004, Lukas Grunwald released a computer program ''RFDump'' which with suitable hardware allows reading and reprogramming the metadata contained in an RFID tag, although not the unchangeable serial number built into each tag. He said consumers could use this program to protect themselves, although it would also have significant malicious uses. Passports A number of countries have begun to embed RFID devices in new which functioned when approached by persons from a particular country. The all US passports will contain RFID chips with some security features. The passports will be shielded to prevent skimming. The department will also implement Basic Access Control (BAC), which functions as a Personal Identification Number (PIN) in the form of characters printed on the passport data page. Before a passport's tag can be read, this PIN must be entered into an RFID reader. The BAC also enables the encryption of any communication between the chip and interrogator {Link without Title} . The Pakistan Passport Authority has started issuing passports with RFID tags. The only a handful of passports have been issued {Link without Title} . The Malaysian Passport Authority has started using passports with RFID tags since early 2000. The New Zealand government introduced chipped passports on 4 November 2005 after trials with pilots from the United States in association with Australia. All new passports issued by New Zealand will contain these chips. France is to start issuing biometric identity cards on 17 April 2006 . Driver's licenses The US state of Virginia has considered putting RFID`S tag into Driver's License s ostensibly to make lookups faster for police officers and other government officials. The Virginia General Assembly also hopes that by including the tags, false Identity Document s would become much harder to obtain. The proposal was first introduced in the "Driver's License Modernization Act" of 2002 , which was not enacted, but as of 2004 the concept was still under consideration. The idea was prompted by the fact that several of the September 11 Hijackers held fraudulent Virginia driver's licenses. However the American Civil Liberties Union has noted that in addition to being a risk to privacy and liberty, the RFID proposal would not have hindered the hijackers, since the false documents they carried were valid, officially issued documents obtained with other false identification. The weakness in the system is not failure to validate documents in the field, but failure to verify identity before issuing them. The mark of the beast? There has been discussion by members of the ). This subject is studied by those Christians interested in the fields of Eschatology (last things) and Dispensationalism . Previously, other forms of identification such as Credit Card s and UPC Code s had been suggested as candidates for the mark. [http://www.cybertime.net/~ajgood/trust.html [http://www.rfid-666.com] While the exact Mark of the Beast used in the Left Behind series was not fully explained, the implanted chip did seem to be similar to a RFID tag. Vulnerabilities
RFID IN INVENTORY SYSTEMS An advanced automatic identification technology such as the Auto-ID system based on the Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology has two values for inventory systems. First, the visibility provided by this technology allows an accurate knowledge on the inventory level by eliminating the discrepancy between inventory record and physical inventory. Second, the RFID technology can prevent or reduce the sources of errors. Benefits of using RFID include the reduction of labor costs, the simplification of business processes and the reduction of inventory inaccuracies NOTES SEE ALSO |
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