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The Qing Dynasty ( founded by the Manchu clan Aisin Gioro , in what is today Northeast China , expanded into China Proper and the surrounding territories of Inner Asia , establishing the '''Empire of the Great Qing''' (). The Qing was the last Imperial Dynasty Of China . Declared as the '''Later Jin Dynasty''' in 1616 , it changed its name in 1636 to "Qing", it became the ruler of all of China in 1644 , completing the Manchu Conquest . During its reign, the Qing Dynasty consolidated its grip on China, partially integrated with Chinese Culture , and saw the height of Imperial Chinese influence. However, its military power weakened during the 1800s, and faced with international pressure, massive Rebellion s and defeats in War s, the Qing Dynasty declined after the mid-19th century. The Qing Dynasty would be eventually overthrown in the Xinhai Revolution when Empress Dowager Longyu , when faced with massive opposition, abdicated on behalf of the last emperor, Puyi , on February 12 , 1912 . "Later Jin" is sometimes spelled "Later Jinn" to distinguish from another Later Jin Dynasty (936-946) . FORMATION OF THE MANCHU STATE The Qing Dynasty was not founded by the . Nurhaci died the same year. One of his most important achievements was the creation of eight banner units responsible for the civil and military administration of all its troops and their families. Nurhaci's successor Huang Taiji continued to build on his father's foundations, incorporating the first Han banners into his army. Huang Taiji also adopted many Ming political institutions into his Manchu state, but also provided for Manchu domination of those institutions through a quota system. When Lingdan Khan , the last grand-Khan of the Mongols, died on his way to Tibet in 1634, his son Ejei Surrender ed to the Manchus and gave the great seal of the Yuan Emperor to Huang Taiji. In 1636 Huang Taiji renamed the state Qing, meaning ''pure'', suggesting ambitions beyond Manchuria. In a series of military campaigns, he won the submission of Inner Mongolia and Korea before proceeding took control of the Heilongjiang region, situated around the Amur River . CLAIMING THE MANDATE OF HEAVEN After years of civil unrest, the Ming capital Beijing was sacked by a coalition of rebel forces led by Li Zicheng . The Ming Dynasty officially came to an end when the Chongzhen Emperor Of China , the last Ming emperor Committed Suicide by Hanging himself on a Tree on Coal Hill overlooking the Forbidden City . After taking Beijing in April 1644, Li Zicheng led an Army of 60,000 strong to confront Wu Sangui , the general commanding Ming's 100,000-strong Garrison guarding Shanhaiguan (山海關). Shanhaiguan is the pivotal northeastern Pass of the Great Wall Of China located fifty miles northeast of Beijing and for years its Defens es were what kept the Manchus outside of the capital. Wu, caught between two enemies, decided to cast his lot with the Manchus and made an alliance with Prince Dorgon, regent to the then six-year old Emperor Shunzhi, son of Emperor Huang Taiji who had died the year before. Together, the two armies defeated Li Zicheng's rebel forces in battle on May 27 , 1644 . The process took another seventeen years of battling Ming Loyalist s, Pretender s and rebels. The last Ming pretender, Prince Gui , sought refuge in Burma, now modern Myanmar , but was turned over to a Qing expeditionary force headed by Wu Sangui who had him brought back to Yunnan province and Executed in early 1662. KANGXI AND CONSOLIDATION - 1722 )]] The Kangxi Emperor (r. 1662 - 1722 ) assumed the throne at age seven. During the early years of his reign, he was largely aided by his grandmother, the Grand Empress Dowager , Xiaozhuang . The Manchus found controlling the "Mandate of Heaven" a daunting task. The vastness of China's territory meant that there were only enough banner troops to garrison key cities forming the backbone of a defence network that relied heavily on surrendered Ming soldiers. In addition, three surrendered Ming generals were singled out for their contributions to the establishment of the Qing dynasty, ennobled as feudal princes (藩王), and given governorships over vast territories in Southern China. The chief of these was Wu Sangui (吳三桂), who was given the provinces of Yunnan, and Guizhou , while generals Shang Kexi (尚可喜) and Geng Zhongming (耿仲明) were given Guangdong and Fujian provinces, respectively. As the years went by, the three feudal lords and their territories inevitably became increasingly autonomous. Finally, in 1673, Shang Kexi petitioned Kangxi Emperor, stating his desire to retire to his home town in Liaodong (遼東) province and nominating his son as his successor. The young emperor granted his retirement but denied the heredity of his fief. In reaction, the two other generals decided to petition for their own retirements to test Kangxi's resolve, thinking that he wouldn't risk offending them. The move backfired as the young emperor called their bluff by accepting their requests and ordering all three fiefdoms to be reverted back to the crown. Faced with the stripping of their powers, Wu Sangui felt he had no choice but to rise up in revolt. He was joined by Geng Zhongming and Shang Kexi's son Shang Zhixin (尚之信). The ensuing rebellion lasted for eight years. At the peak of the rebels' fortunes, they managed to extend their control as far north as the river Changjiang (長江). Ultimately, though, the Qing government was able to put down the rebellion and exert control over all of southern China. The rebellion would be known in Chinese history as the Revolt Of The Three Feudatories . To consolidate the empire, Kangxi personally led China on a series of military campaigns against Tibet , the Dzungars , and later Russia . He arranged the marriage of his daughter to the Khan Gordhun to avoid a military conflict. Gordhun's military campaign against the Qing failed, further strengthening the Empire. Taiwan was also taken by Qing forces in 1683 from Zheng Jing 's son, Zheng Ke-Shuang ; the former (his grandfather Koxinga) had conquered it from the Dutch . By the end of the 17th Century , China was at its most powerful since the early Ming Dynasty . Kangxi also handled many Jesuit Missionaries that came to China hoping for mass conversions. Although they failed in their attempt, Kangxi still peacefully kept the missionaries in Beijing . THE YONGZHENG AND QIANLONG EMPERORS and metal pot was created in the Qing Dynasty of China , during the Qianlong reign in the 18th Century . It is housed in the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. ]] Yongzheng (r. 1723 - 1735 ) and his son Qianlong (r. 1735 - 1796 ) and their reigns were at the height of Qing power, ruling over 13 million square kilometres of territory. After Kangxi's death in the winter of 1722, his fourth son Yongzheng succeeded as the Yongzheng Emperor . Yongzheng remained a controversial character because of rumours about him usurping the throne, and for the late Kangxi years was involved in great political struggles with his brothers. Yongzheng was a hardworking administrator who ruled with an iron hand. His first big step towards a stronger regime came when he brought the State Examination System back to its original standards. In 1724 he cracked down on illegal exchange rates of coins, which was being manipulated by officials to fit their financial needs. Those who were found in violation of new laws on finances were removed from office, or in extreme cases, executed. Yongzheng showed a great amount of trust in Han officials, and appointed many of his proteges to prestigious positions. Nian Gengyao was appointed to lead a military campaign in place of his brother Yinti in Qinghai . Nian's arrogant actions, however, led to his downfall in 1726. Yongzheng's reign saw consolidation of imperial power at its height in Chinese history. More territory was incorporated in the Northwest. A toughened stance was directed towards corrupt officials, and Yongzheng led the creation of a General Command Centre (軍機處), which grew to become the de facto Cabinet for the rest of the dynasty. Yongzheng died in 1735 . This was followed by the succession of his son Hongli as the Qianlong Emperor . Qianlong was known as an able general. Succeeding the throne at the age of 24, Qianlong personally led the military in campaigns near Xinjiang and Mongolia . Revolts and uprisings in Sichuan and parts of southern China were successfully calmed. Around forty years into Qianlong's reign, the Qing government saw a return of rampant corruption. The official Heshen was arguably one of the most corrupt in the entire Qing Dynasty. He was eventually forced to commit suicide by Qianlong's son, the Jiaqing Emperor (r. 1796 - 1820 ). REBELLION, UNREST AND EXTERNAL PRESSURE A common view of 19th Century China is that it was an era in which Qing control weakened and prosperity diminished. Indeed, China suffered massive social strife, economic stagnation, and explosive population growth which placed an increasing strain on the food supply. Historians offer various explanations for these events, but the basic idea is that Qing power was, over the course of the century, faced with internal problems and foreign pressure which were simply too much for the antiquated Chinese government, bureaucracy, and economy to deal with. The Taiping Rebellion in the mid-nineteenth century was the first major instance of anti-Manchu sentiment threatening the stability of the Qing dynasty, a phenomenon that would only increase in the following years. However, the horrific number of casualties of this rebellion - which was as many as 30 million people - and the complete devastation of a huge area in the south of the country have to a large extent been overshadowed by another significant conflict. Although not nearly as bloody, the outside world and its ideas and technologies had a tremendous and ultimately revolutionary impact on an increasingly weak and uncertain Qing state. One of the major issues affecting nineteenth-century China was the question of how to deal with other countries. Prior to the nineteenth-century, the Chinese Empire was the hegemonic power in Asia. Under its imperial theory, the Chinese emperor had the rights to rule " All Under Heaven ". Depending on the period and dynasty, it either ruled territories directly or neighbors fell under its hierarchical tributary system. Historians often refer the underlying concept of Chinese empire as "an empire with no boundary." Thus, the European concept of foreign relations based on equality did not exist. However, the Eighteenth Century saw the European empires gradually expand across the world, as European states developed stronger economies built on Maritime Trade . On the other hand, the Chinese empire stagnated after centuries of being ahead of the world. By the end of the eighteenth century, European colonies had been established in nearby India and Indonesia , whilst the Russian Empire had annexed the areas north of China. During the Napoleonic Wars , Great Britain attempted to forge an alliance with China, sending a fleet to Hong Kong with gifts for the Emperor, including examples of the latest European technologies and art. When the British delegation received a letter from Peking explaining that China was unimpressed with European achievements, and that George III was welcome to pay homage to the Chinese court, the deeply offended British government aborted all further attempts to reconcile relations with the Qing regime. When the Napoleonic Wars ended in 1815 , world trade rapidly increased, and as China's vast population offered limitless markets for European goods, trade between Chinese and European merchants expanded during the early years of the nineteenth century. This increased trade, though, led to increasing hostility between European governments and the Qing regime. In 1793 , the Qing regime had officially stated that China had no use for European manufactured products. Subsequently, leading Chinese merchants only accepted bar Silver as payment for their goods. The huge demand in Europe for Chinese goods such as Silk , Tea , and Ceramics could only be met if European companies funnelled their limited supplies of silver into China. By the late 1830's, the governments of Great Britain and France were deeply concerned about their stockpiles of precious metals and sought alternate trading schemes with China - the foremost of which was addicting China with opium. When the Qing regime tried to ban the opium trade in 1838, Great Britain declared war on China. The First Opium War revealed the outdated state of the Chinese military. Although China's army overwhelmingly outnumbered the British, their technology and tactics were hopelessly inadequate for a war against the world's leading technological power. The Qing navy, composed entirely of wooden sailing Junk s, was no match for the steam-powered Ironclad battleships of the Royal Navy . British soldiers, using modern Rifle s and Artillery , easily outmaneuvered and outgunned Qing forces in ground battles. The Qing surrender in 1842 marked a decisive, humiliating blow to China. The Treaty Of Nanking , which demanded Reparation payments, allowed unrestricted European access to Chinese ports, and ceded the island of Hong Kong to Great Britain. It revealed many inadequacies in the Qing government and provoked widespread rebellions against the regime. The Western powers, largely unsatisfied with the Treaty of Nanking, only gave grudging support to the Qing government during the Taiping and Nian Rebellion s. China's income fell sharply during the wars as vast areas of farmland were destroyed, millions of lives lost, and countless armies raised and equipped to fight the rebels. In 1854 , Great Britain tried to re-negotiate the Treaty of Nanking, inserting clauses allowing British commercial access to Chinese rivers and the creation of a permanent British embassy at Peking . This last clause outraged the Qing regime, who refused to sign, provoking another war with Britain. The Second Opium War ended in another crushing Chinese defeat, whilst the Treaty Of Tianjin contained clauses deeply insulting to the Chinese, such as a demand that all official Chinese documents be written in English and a proviso granting British warships unlimited access to all navigable Chinese rivers. THE RULE OF EMPRESS DOWAGER CIXI , Germany , Russia , France , and Japan ]] In the late 19th Century , a new leader emerged. The Empress Dowager Cixi , Concubine to the Xianfeng Emperor (r. 1850 - 1861 ), the mother of child emperor Tongzhi , and Aunt of Guangxu successfully controlled the Qing government and was the De Facto leader of China for 47 years. She staged a Coup D'état to oust the regency led by Sushun appointed by the late Emperor. She was known for her "behind the curtain" (垂簾聽政) participation in politics. By the 1860s, the Qing dynasty had put down the rebellions with the help of Militia organized by the gentry. The Qing government then proceeded to deal with problem of modernization, which it attempted with the Self-Strengthening Movement . Several modernized armies were formed including the much renowned Beiyang Army ; however the fleets of "Beiyang" were annihilated in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) , which produced calls for greater and more extensive reform. After the start of the 20th Century , the Qing Dynasty was in a dilemma. It could proceed with reform and thereby alienate the conservative gentry or it could stall reform and thereby alienate the revolutionaries. The Qing Dynasty tried to follow a middle path, but proceeded to alienate everyone. 10 years into the reign of Guangxu (r. 1875 - 1908 ), western pressure was so big on China that she forcefully gave up all sorts of power. In 1898 Guangxu attempted the Hundred Days' Reform (百日維新/戊戌變法), in which new laws were put in place and some old rules were abolished. Newer, more progressive-minded thinkers like Kang Youwei were trusted and recognized conservative-minded people like Li Hongzhang were removed from high positions. But the ideals were stifled by Cixi and Guangxu was jailed in his own palace. Cixi, concentrated on centralizing her own power base. At the occasion of her 60th Birthday she spent over 30 million Taels of silver for the decorations & events, funds that were originally to improve the weaponry of the Beiyang Navy . In 1901 , following the murder of the German Ambassador, the Eight-Nation Alliance (八國聯軍) entered China as a united military force for the second time. Cixi reacted by declaring war on all eight nations, only to lose Beijing under their control within a short period of time. Along with the Guangxu Emperor, she fled to Xi'an . As a military compensation, the Alliance listed scores of demands on the Qing Government, including an initial hitlist which had Cixi as No. 1. Li Hongzhang was sent to negotiate and the Alliance backed down from several of the demands. was an adept politician and general]] QING GOVERNMENT AND SOCIETY Politics The most important administrative body of the Qing dynasty was the Grand Council which was a body composed of the emperor and high officials. The Qing dynasty was characterized by a system of dual appointments by which each position in the central government had a Manchu and a Han assigned to it. During the Qianlong Emperor 's reign, for example, members of his family were distinguished by garments with a large circular emblem on the back, whereas a Han could only hope to wear clothing with a square emblem; this meant effectively that any guard in the court could immediately distinguish family members from the back view alone. With respect to Mongolia, Tibet and Eastern Turkestan, like other dynasties before, the Qing maintained imperial control, with the emperor acting as Mongol khan, patron of Tibetan Buddhism and protector of Muslims. However, Qing policy changed with the establishment of Xinjiang province in 1884. In response to British and Russian military action in Xinjiang and Tibet, the Qing sent Army units which performed remarkably well against British units. The abdication of the Qing emperor inevitably led to the controversy about the status of territories in Tibet and Mongolia. It was and remains the position of Mongols and Tibetan nationalists, that because they owed allegiance to the Qing monarch, that with the abdication of the Qing, they owed no allegiance to the new Chinese state. This position was rejected by the Republic of China and subsequent People's Republic of China which based their claims on the fact that these areas were integral parts of Chinese dynasties even before the Qing. Regardless of Hans, Manchus, Mongols, or other ethnic groups, they all established Sino-centric based dynasties, and claimed their legitimacy and history as part of imperial China over the last two thousands years. The Western powers accepted the latter theory, partly in order to prevent a scramble for China. Bureaucracy | ||
| '''Board Of War''' (兵部Bìngbú) - Unlike Its | "http://wwwinformationdelightinfo/encyclopedia/entry/Ming_Dynasty" class="copylinks">Ming Dynasty predecessor, which had full control over all military matters, the Qing Dynasty Board of War had very limited powers First, the Banner Armies were under the direct control of the Emperor and hereditary Manchurian & Mongolian princes, leaving the ministry only with authority over the Green Standard Armies Furthermore, the ministry's functions were purely administrative - campaigns and troop movements were monitored and directed by the Emperor, first through the Manchu ruling council, and later through the General Command Centre (Junjichu軍機處) |
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| The Development Of Qing Military System Can Be Divided Into Two Broad Periods Separated By The Established The General Command Centre (Junjichu軍機處) At First To Direct Day To Day Military Operations, But Gradually Junjichu Took Over Other Military And Administrative Duties And Served To Centralize Authority To The Crown However, The Iron Cap Princes Continued To Exercise Considerable Influence Over The Political And Military Affairs Of Qing Government Well Into The Reign Of | "http://wwwinformationdelightinfo/encyclopedia/entry/Emperor_Qianlong" class="copylinks">Emperor Qianlong |
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