| Pre-islamic Period Of Afghanistan |
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Archaeological exploration began in Afghanistan in earnest after World War II and proceeded until the Soviet Invasion Of Afghanistan disrupted it in December of 1979 . Artifacts typical of the Paleolithic , Mesolithic , Neolithic , Bronze , and Iron ages were found. PREHISTORY It is not yet clear, however, to what extent these periods were contemporaneous with similar stages of development in other geographic regions. The area that is now Afghanistan seems in prehistory - as well as ancient and modern times - to have been closely connected by culture and trade with the neighboring regions to the east, west, and north. Urban civilization in the Iranian Plateau , which includes most of Iran and Afghanistan, may have begun as early as 3000 to 2000 BCE (see also Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex ). Archaelogical finds also indicate the possible beginnings of the Bronze Age which would ultimately spread throughout the ancient world from Afghanistan. It is also believed that the region had early trade contacts with both the Indus Valley Civilization and Mesopotamia and that the ancient city of Mudigak may have even been a provincial colony of the Indus Valley Civilization or closely affiliated, but this remains largely circumstantial and speculative. 1234 ANCIENT AFGHANISTAN: FROM THE ARYANS TO THE MEDES. 1500 BCE - 551 BCE Between 2000-1200 BCE, a branch of (and other related early Indo-European languages such as Latin and Ancient Greek ), it is believed that the split between the Iranian and Indo-Aryan tribes had taken place at least by 1000 BCE. There are striking similarities between the Eastern Iranian language of Avestan and Sanskrit , which may support the notion that the split was contemporary with the Indo-Aryans living in Afghanistan at a very early stage. Also, the Avesta itself divides into Old and New sections and neither mention the Medes who are known to have rule Afghanistan starting around 700 BCE. This suggests an early time-frame for the Avesta that has yet to be exactly determined as most academics believe it was written over the course of centuries if not millennia. Much of the archaelogical data comes from the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC) that probably played a key role in early Iranic civilization in Afghanistan. It has also been surmised by many researchers that the Iranian prophet Zoroaster was born somewhere in ancient Aryana, possibly in the ancient city of Balkh , but it remains unknown even if he was born in what is today Afghanistan or northeastern Iran or Central Asia and the timeframe of his life literally spans millennia from as early 2000 BCE to as late as 600 BCE. Regardless, Zoroastrianism spread throughout the region alongside early pagan beliefs and centuries later Buddhism. During this early period, the Pashtuns or some of their early Eastern Iranian ancestors are believed to have originated near the vicinity of Kandahar and/or the Sulaiman Mountains and possibly begun to expand into other parts of Afghanistan. Herodotus mentions a tribe called the Pactyan as inhabiting much of what is today Afghanistan and northwestern Pakistan and it is speculated by some that these people were the ancient ancestors of the Pashtuns, although, aside from phoenetic name similarities, this remains unproven. Others such as Strabo relate the existence of tribes west of the Indus as part of Ariana , while the east is referred to as 'India', but it is not clear whether or not various Pashtun tribes are what Strabo is referring to. Arrian 's ''Indica'' also makes reference to various wild tribes west of the Indus who may or may not have been ancestors of the Pashtuns. The Rig Veda makes mention of a group called the ''Pakhat'' and it is possible that either this is a reference to the ancestors of the Pashtuns or a reference to an Indo-Aryan -speaking group or some other tribe altogether. Mainly pagan at first, many Pashtuns appear to have adopted Buddhist and Zoroastrian traditions due to contact with both Iranic and Indic cultural influences, while other eastern Afghans may have remained pagans not unlike their neighbors the Kafirs of Nuristan as well as the Kalash . The Medes , a Western Iranian people, arrived from what is today Kurdistan sometime around the 700s BCE and came to dominate most of ancient Afghanistan. They were an early Iranian tribe that forged the first empire on the Iranian plateau and were rivals of the Persians whom they initially dominated in the province of Fars to the south. Median domination of Afghanistan would last until the Persians challenged and ultimately replaced them from their original base in Fars in southern Iran near ancient Elam . EARLY INDO-ARYANS PRIOR TO THEIR MOVE TO INDIA In the region around what is today and Kamboja , two of the sixteen Mahajanapadas (in Sanskrit 'Great Kingdoms') frequently referred to in Buddhist and Hindu religious texts are believed to have evolved as important political entities in what is today eastern Afghanistan. Many scholars believe that while the Gandharans were early Indo-Aryan -speakers, the Kambojas were either Iranian or Indo-Iranian -speaking. Both groups find frequent mention in numerous ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts, in particular the Mahabharata and numerous Puranic literature. Alexander ’s historians refer to the tribal population of Paropamisadae as consisting of such clans as the Parsyetae (Parshu/Parshava), Aspasii ( Aspasians ), Asteknois ( Hastiyanas ) and Assakenois ( Ashvakana s) etc. This nomenclature possibly demonstrates that while most of this Tribal population was Iranian, there were also some population segments which may have spoken early Indo-Aryan tongues prior to their movements to India. This is because while the tribal name Parsyete implies Iranian affinities and the Aspasii (derived from Iranian word Aspa) also indicates an Iranian horse culture, the Assakenois (Sanskrit Ashvakan) of the Swat valley, on the other hand, were possibly an Indo-Aryan horsemen culture as their name derives from the Sanskrit Ashva (horse). The Aspasian peoples are believed to be the western branch of the Ashvakas or Assakenians (''Political history of Ancient India, 1996, p 216; Cambridge History of India, 352, n 3''). The Assakenois and Aspasios of the classical writings or the Ashvakas of the Sanskrit texts are believed by numerous scholars to have been sub-sections of the ancient Kambojas in reference to their equestrian nature. See for this Dr E. Lamotte, Dr K. P. Jayswal, Dr Buddha Parkash, Dr L. M. Joshi, Dr Fauja Singh, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B . N. Mukerjee, Dr Romila Thapar, Dr J. L. Kamboj, and several others. The rock , Kamboh and Kamoz , the modern representatives of ancient Kambojas, in India , Pakistan and Afghanistan is estimated to be approximately around 1.5 millions. The Chronology of major events and corresponding Archaeology remains highly sporadic as does the religious connotation which remains unverifiable. ACHAEMENID RULE, AND RISE OF ZOROASTRIANISM CA. 550 BCE - 331 BCE The city of Bactria (which later became Balkh ), is believed to have been the home of Zarathustra , who founded the Zoroastrian religion. The Avesta refers to eastern Bactria as being the home of the Zoroastrian faith, but this can be a reference to either a region in modern Afghanistan or northeastern Iran. Regardless of the debate as to where Zoroaster was from, Zoroastrianism spread to become one of the world's most influential religions and became the main faith of the southern Iranian Peoples for centuries. It remained the official religion of Persia until the defeat of the Sassanian ruler Yazdegerd III (over a thousand years after its founding) by Muslim Arab . In what is today southern Iran, the Persians emerged to challenge Median supremacy on the Iranian plateau. By 550 BCE, the Persians had replaced Median rule with their own dominion and even began to expand past previous Median imperial borders. Both Gandhara and Kamboja Mahajanapadas of the Buddhist texts soon fell a prey to the Achaemenian Dynasty during the reign of Achaemenid, Cyrus The Great (558-530 BCE), or in the first year of Darius I . According to Pliny 's evidence, Cyrus II had destroyed Kapisa in Capiscene (Naturalis Historia, VI, 25, 92) which was a Kamboja city. The former region of Gandhara and Kamboja (upper Indus) had constituted seventh satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire and annually contributed 170 talents of gold dust as a tribute to the Achaemenids. Bactria had a special position in the Persian empire, being the capital of a vice-kingdom. By the fourth century BCE, Persian control of outlying areas and the internal cohesion of the empire had become somewhat tenuous. Although distant provinces like Bactriana had often been restless under Achaemenid rule, Bactrian troops nevertheless fought on the Iranian side in the decisive Battle Of Gaugamela in 330 BCE against the advancing armies of Alexander III (also known as 'the Great'). The Achaemenids were decisively defeated by Alexander The Great and retreated from his advancing army of Greco-Macedonians and their Iranian allies. Darius III , the last Achaemenid ruler, tried to flee to Bactria, but was assassinated by a subordinate lord, the Bactrian-born Bessus , who proclaimed himself the new ruler of Persia as Artaxerxes , but was unable to mount a successful resistance to the growing military might of Alexander's army. Fleeing to his native Bactria, Bessus attempted to rally local Iranian tribes to his side, but was instead turned over to Alexander who proceeded to have him tortured and executed for having committed Regicide . ALEXANDER THE GREAT, SELEUCID-MAURYAN RIVALRY, AND GRECO-BACTRIAN RULE, 330 BCE - CA. 150 BCE It had taken bride, Roxana (who was reportedly born in Balkh), while trying to consolidate his rule over ancient Afghanistan and adjacent regions in Central Asia. Their union reportedly produced one sole heir, Alexander IV , who was later killed in Greece by Cassander . Although Alexander's expedition through ancient Afghanistan was brief, he left behind a Hellenic cultural influence that lasted several centuries. Upon Alexander's death in 323 BCE , his empire, which had never been politically consolidated, broke apart as his companions began to divide it amongst themselves. Alexander's cavalry commander, Seleucus , took nominal control of the eastern lands and founded the Seleucid dynasty. Under the Seleucids, as under Alexander, Greek colonists and soldiers colonized Bactria, roughly corresponding to modern Afghanistan's borders. However, the majority of Macedonian soldiers of Alexander the Great wanted to leave the east and return home to Greece. Later, Seleucus sought to guard his eastern frontier and moved Ionia n Greeks (also known as Yavanas to many local groups) to Bactria in the third century BCE. During the colonization of Bactria, the Mauryan Empire was developing in the northern part of the Indian Subcontinent and following brief conflict with the Seleucids, an agreement was reached as Seleucus ceded Gandhara and Arachosia (centered around ancient Kandahar) and areas south of Bagram (corresponding to the extreme south-east of modern Afghanistan) to the Mauryans. During the somewhat brief rule of the Mauryans in ancient Afghanistan, Buddhism was introduced and eventually become a major religion if not the dominant faith alongside Zoroastrianism in ancient Afghanistan. Greco-Bactrian rule (171-145 BCE)]] See Also: Greco-Bactrian kingdom In the middle of the 3rd Century BCE , an independent, Hellenistic state was declared in Bactria and eventually the control of the Seleucids and Mauryans was overthrown in western and southern Afghanistan. Graeco-Bactrian rule spread until it included a large territory which stretched from northeastern Iran in the west to the Ganges River in India in the east by about 170 BCE. Graeco-Bactrian rule was eventually defeated by a combination of internecine disputes that plagued Greek and Hellenized rulers to the west, and overly ambitious attempts to extend control into northern India, as well as the pressure of two groups of nomadic invaders from Central Asia - the Parthians and Sakas (perhaps a sub-group of the Iranian Scythians ). THE KUSHAN EMPIRE, CA. 150 BCE - 300 CE ( Heraios, Sanav, the Kushan" (the meaning of "Sanav" is unknown).]] In the Third and Second Centuries BC , the Parthians , a nomadic Iranian People , arrived in ancient Afghanistan. The Parthians established control in most of what is Iran as early as the middle of the 3rd Century BC ; about 100 years later another Indo-European group from the north - the Tocharian Kushan s (a subgroup of the tribe called the Yuezhi by the Chinese ) - entered the region that is now Afghanistan and established an empire lasting almost four centuries. The Kushan Empire spread from the Kabul River valley to defeat other Central Asian tribes that had previously conquered parts of the northern central Iranian Plateau once ruled by the Parthians. By the middle of the 1st Century BCE , the Kushans' base of control became Afghanistan and their empire spanned from the north of the Pamir Mountains to the Ganges River Valley in India. Early in the 2nd Century under Kanishka , the most powerful of the Kushan rulers, the empire reached its greatest geographic and cultural breadth to become a center of literature and art. Kanishka extended Kushan control to the mouth of the Indus River on the Arabian Sea , into Kashmir , and into what is today the Chinese-controlled area north of Tibet . Kanishka was a patron of religion and the arts. It was during his reign that Mahayana Buddhism, imported to northern India earlier by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka (ca. 260 BCE - 232 BCE ), reached its zenith in Central Asia. Though the Kushanas were predominantly Zoroastrian themselves, they also supported local Buddhists and Hindus as well as the worshop of various local deities. SASSANIAN RULE, CA. 300 - 650 who conquered ancient Afghanistan]] In the 3rd Century , Kushan control fragmented into semi-independent kingdoms that became easy targets for conquest by the rising Iranian dynasty, the Sassanians (ca. 224 - 561 ) which annexed Afghanistan by 300 CE. Sassanian control was tenuous at times as numerous challenges from Central Asian tribes led to instability and constant warfare in the region. The disunited Kushan and Sassanian kingdoms were in a poor position to meet the threat of a new wave of nomadic, Indo-European invaders from the north. The Hepthalite s (or White Huns) swept out of Central Asia around the fourth century into Bactria and to the south, overwhelming the last of the Kushan and Sassanian kingdoms. Some have speculated that the name ''Afghanistan'' derives from the name of the defeated Hepthalite king, Faganish . Historians believe that Hepthalite control continued for a century and was marked by constant warfare with the Sassanians to the west who exerted nominal control over the region. By the middle of the sixth century the Hepthalites were defeated in the territories north of the Amu Darya (the Oxus River of antiquity) by another group of Central Asian nomads, the Gokturks , and by the resurgent Sassanians in the lands south of the Amu Darya. It was the ruler of western Gokturks, Sijin (aka Sinjibu, Silzibul and Yandu Muchu Khan) who led the forces against the Hepthalites who were defeated at the Battle Of Chach ( Tashkent ) and at the Battle Of Bukhara . THE SHAHI KINGS, CA. 650 - 1013 |
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