| Participation (decision Making) |
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For well-informed participation to occur, some version of Transparency , e.g. Radical Transparency , is necessary, but '''not sufficient'''. In Sherry Arnstein 's article ''A Ladder of Citizen Participation'' (1969) she discusses types of participation and "nonparticipation" which she grades from Manipulation (least citizen participation) to '''Citizen Control''' (most citizen participation). The three (3) categories used are: Degrees of Citizen Power
Degrees of Tokenism
Nonparticipation
Arnstein continues to define citizen participation as "''the redistribution of power that enables the havenot citizens, presently excluded from the political and economic processes, to be deliberately included in the future''". Multiple other "''ladders''" of participation have been presented, most notably Connor's "A new ladder of citizen participation" (1988), Wiedemann and Femers' "Public Participation in waste management decision making: analysis and management of conflicts" (1993) and Dorcey et al. "Public Involvement in government decision making: choosing the right model" (1994). SEE ALSO
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