Information AboutPanama Canal |
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The Panama Canal ( ''Canal de Panamá'') is a major Ship Canal that traverses the Isthmus Of Panama in Central America , connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean s. The construction of the canal was one of the largest and most difficult Engineering projects ever undertaken. It has had an enormous impact on Shipping , as ships no longer have to travel the long and treacherous route via the Drake Passage and Cape Horn at the southernmost tip of South America . A ship sailing from New York to San Francisco via the canal travels 9,500 Kilometre s (6,000 Mi ), well under half the distance of the previous 22,500 kilometre (14,000 mi) route around Cape Horn. ''The Americans in Panama'' , by William R. Scott; Statler Publishing Company, New York, NY, 1913 Although the concept of a canal in Panama dates back to the early 16th century, the first attempt to construct a canal began in 1880 under French leadership. After this attempt collapsed, the work was finally completed by the United States , and the canal opened in 1914 . The building of the 77 Kilometre (48 Mi ) canal was plagued by problems, including disease (particularly Malaria and Yellow Fever ) and massive Landslides . As many as 27,500 workers are estimated to have died during construction of the canal. Since opening, the canal has been enormously successful, and continues to be a key conduit for international shipping. Each year the canal accommodates the passage of more than 14,000 ships, carrying more than 203 million Tonne s of cargo. By 2002 about 800,000 ships had passed through the canal. ''The Panama Canal'' , from Global Perspectives DESCRIPTION from the Pacific Ocean at the south-east end to the Atlantic Ocean at the north-west end.]] The Panama Canal connects the Gulf Of Panama in the Pacific Ocean with the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean . Because of the S-shape of the Isthmus Of Panama the canal runs from south-east at the Pacific end to north-west at the Atlantic; to avoid confusion the canal authorities classify transits of the canal as ''northbound'' (Pacific to Atlantic) and ''southbound'' (Atlantic to Pacific). The canal can accommodate vessels from small private Yacht s up to fairly large commercial ships. The maximum size of vessel which can use the canal is known as '' Panamax ''; an increasing number of modern ships exceed this limit, and are known as ''post-Panamax'' vessels. A typical passage through the canal by a cargo ship takes around nine hours. 14,011 vessels passed through the canal in 2005, with a total capacity of 278.8 million tons, making an average of almost 40 vessels per day. ''Panama Canal Traffic — Fiscal Years 2002–2004'' , Panama Canal Authority Layout The canal consists of two Artificial Lake s, several improved and artificial Channel s, and three sets of Lock s. An additional artificial lake, Alajuela Lake , acts as a Reservoir for the canal. The layout of the canal as seen by a ship transiting from the Pacific end to the Atlantic is as follows: ''Historical Map & Chart Project'' from NOAA, including Panama Canal charts
The total transit from the Pacific entrance channel to the Atlantic breakwater is 76.9 kilometres (47.8 mi). The maximum s (8 In ) higher than at the Atlantic end. ''Sea Level: Frequently Asked Questions and Answers'' , from Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level Limón Bay, on the Atlantic side, is a sheltered anchorage protected by a seawall; however, the space inside the bay is no longer adequate for the number and size of ships using the canal, and many ships wait at anchor in the open sea outside the bay. The anchorage on the Pacific side is open although it is protected by the enclosed topography of the Gulf of Panama. Locks See Also: Panama Canal Locks The most visually impressive feature of the canal is its locks. The lock chambers are 33.53 metres (110 ft) wide with a usable length of 304.8 metres (1000 ft). ''The Panama Canal'' , by George W. Goethals The available water depth in the lock chambers varies, but the least depth of 12.55 metres (41.2 ft) is at the south sill of the Pedro Miguel locks. ''Vessel Requirements'' , from the Panama Canal Authority These dimensions determine the maximum size of ships which can use the canal; this size is known as Panamax . All of the locks on the canal are paired; there are two parallel flights of locks at each of the three lock sites, which in principle allows ships to pass in opposite directions simultaneously. However, large ships cannot cross safely at speed in the Gaillard Cut; in practice ship traffic flows alternately, using both "lanes" of the locks in one direction at a time. Each lock chamber requires 101,000 engines called ''mulas'' ('' Mule s'', named after the animals traditionally used to pull barges), running on tracks on the lock walls; smaller vessels, such as small tour boats and private yachts, are taken as ''handline'' transits where mooring lines to the lock walls are handled manually by line handlers on the vessel. Gatún and Alajuela lakes See Also: Lake Gatún Lake Gatún and the enhanced Chagres River (Río Chagres) are key components of the canal, carrying ships a significant part of the way across the isthmus. The lake also acts as a Reservoir , storing water to allow the locks to continue operation during the dry season. The lake was formed, and the river widened and deepened, by the construction of the Gatun Dam on the Chagres River. ''Building the Dams'' , from ''History Of The Panama Canal'', by Ira E. Bennett; Historical Publishing Company, Washington, DC, 1915 This flooded the originally wooded valley; almost a century later, the stumps of old mahogany trees can still be seen rising from the water, and submerged snags form a hazard for small vessels that wander off the marked channels. There is a small "shortcut" channel through the lake, the "Banana Cut", providing a slightly shorter route; this is used by canal launches and yachts and to avoid the heavy ship traffic. ''The Panama Canal'' , from S/V Pelorus Jack Several Island s are located within the Lake Gatún portion of the Panama Canal, including Barro Colorado Island , home of the world famous Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI). The volume of water used by ships passing through the locks, combined with the seasonal nature of the rainfall in Panama, makes it difficult to maintain the level of Lake Gatún, particularly in the dry season. An additional dam, the Madden Dam, was therefore built across the Chagres above Lake Gatun. This created Alajuela Lake — also known as Madden Lake — which provides additional water storage for the canal. ''Madden Dam'' , from CZ Brats Crossings There are several crossings over the canal. At the south (Pacific) end is the Bridge Of The Americas , a major road bridge which opened in 1962; for many years, this was the only permanent crossing of the canal. Before its construction, most traffic used a ferry at the same location. Further north, at the Miraflores locks, there is a swinging road/rail bridge; opened in 1942, it can only carry traffic when no ship is passing, and is now rarely used. Photo: ''The Opening of the Miraflores Bridge'' , CZ Brats At the same point, a small swinging road bridge is built in to the Miraflores lock structure; this is also rarely used. ''Costa Rica Tour and Panama Cruise — Photos and text by Jack Yeazel'' , with detail pictures of the locks The newest crossing is the Centennial Bridge , which crosses over the Gaillard Cut just north of the Pedro Miguel locks; this major six-lane road bridge was completed in 2004 (although it opened to traffic in 2005). Finally, another small swinging road bridge is built in to the lock structure at the Gatún Locks; this bridge is only usable when the lock gates are closed, and has a very small capacity. Picture of the Gatún locks road bridge , canalmuseum.com In addition to the public crossings, canal workers may walk across the lock gates when they are closed. HISTORY See Also: History of the Panama Canal The earliest mention of a canal across the Isthmus of Central America dates back to 1534, when Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and king of Spain, suggested that a canal in Panama would ease the voyage for ships travelling to and from Ecuador and Peru . ''Early Canal Plans'' , from the Panama Canal Authority Given the strategic situation of Central America as a narrow land dividing two great oceans, other forms of trade links were attempted over the years. The ill-fated was built across the isthmus, opening in 1855. This overland link greatly facilitated trade, and this vital piece of infrastructure was a key factor in the selection of the later canal route. is shown in this photograph from 1907.]] An all-water route between the oceans was still seen as the ideal solution, and the idea of a canal was revived at various times, and for various routes; a Route Through Nicaragua was investigated several times. Finally, enthused by the success of the Suez Canal , the French , under Ferdinand De Lesseps , began construction on a sea-level canal (i.e., without locks) through Panama on January 1 , 1880 . In 1893, after a great deal of work, the French scheme was defeated by disease and the sheer difficulty of building a sea-level canal. ''The French Canal Construction'' , from the Panama Canal Authority The high death toll was one of the major factors in the failure: although no detailed records were kept, as many as 22,000 workers are estimated to have died during the main period of French construction (1881–1889). ''The French Failure'' , from ''America's Triumph in Panama'' by Ralph E. Avery; L.W. Walter Company, Chicago, IL, 1913 The United States, under Theodore Roosevelt , bought out the French equipment and excavations, and began work in 1904, after helping Panama to declare independence from Colombia in exchange for control of the Panama Canal Zone . A significant investment was made in eliminating disease from the area, particularly Yellow Fever and Malaria , the causes of which had recently been discovered (see Health Measures During The Construction Of The Panama Canal ). With the diseases under control, and after significant work on preparing the infrastructure, construction of an elevated canal with locks began in earnest. The canal was formally opened on August 15 , 1914 , with the transit of the cargo ship ''Ancon''. ''American Canal Construction'' , from the Panama Canal Authority The advances in Hygiene resulted in a relatively low death toll during the American construction; still, 5,609 workers died during this period (1904–1914). ''A History of the Panama Canal: French and American Construction Efforts'' , Panama Canal Authority This brings the total death toll for the construction of the canal to around 27,500. By the 1930s it was seen that water supply would be an issue for the canal; this prompted the building of the Madden Dam across the Chagres River above Gatun Lake. The dam, completed in 1935, created Alajuela Lake, which acts as additional water storage for the canal. Article on flooding of Alhajuela Lake in 2001 , with pictures of Madden Dam. Article on Mr. Richard Bilonick , who was the engineer in charge during the construction of the Madden Dam. In 1939, construction began on a further major improvement: a new set of locks for the canal, large enough to carry the larger warships which the U.S. had under construction, or planned for future construction. The work proceeded for several years, and significant excavation was carried out on the new approach channels; but the project was cancelled after World War II . ''Enlarging the Panama Canal'' , Alden P. Armagnac, CZ Brats ''Enlarging the Panama Canal for Bigger Battleships'' , notes from CZ Brats After the war, United States control of the canal and the Canal Zone surrounding it became contentious as relations between Panama and the U.S. became increasingly tense. Many Panamanians felt that the canal zone rightfully belonged to Panama; student protests were met by the fencing in of the zone and an increased military presence. ''The Martyrs of 1964'' , by Eric Jackson Negotiations toward a new settlement began in 1974, and resulted in the Torrijos-Carter Treaties . Signed by President Of The United States Jimmy Carter and Omar Torrijos of Panama on September 7 , 1977 , this set in motion the process of handing the canal over to Panamanian control. Though controversial within the U.S., the treaty led to full Panamanian control effective at noon on December 31 , 1999 , and control of the canal was handed over to the Panama Canal Authority . TOLLS Tolls for the canal are decided by the Panama Canal Authority and are based on vessel type, size, and the type of cargo carried. ''Maritime Operations — Tolls'' , Panama Canal Authority For Container Ship s, the toll is assessed per " TEU " (Twenty-foot Equivalent Unit), which is the size of a container measuring 20 feet by 8 feet by 8.5 feet (6 m by 2.4 m by 2.6 m). Effective May 1 , 2005 , this toll is $42 per TEU. This is scheduled to rise to $49 on May 1 , 2006 , and again to $54 on May 1 , 2007 . (A Panamax Container Ship may carry over 4,000 TEU.) A reduced toll is charged for container ships "in ballast"; ie. travelling empty, with no cargo or passengers. Most other types of vessel pay a toll per ''PC/UMS Net Ton'' , in which one "ton" is actually a volume of 100 Cubic Feet (2.8 M³ ). (The calculation of Tonnage for commercial vessels is quite complex.) As of 2006, this toll is $2.96 per ton for the first 10,000 tons, $2.90 per ton for the next 10,000 tons, and $2.85 per ton thereafter. As with container ships, a reduced toll is charged for freight ships "in ballast". Small vessels are assessed tolls based on their length. As of 2006, these are: The most expensive toll for canal passage to date was charged on September 25 , 2003 to the luxurious passenger vessel ''Coral Princess, ''which paid $226,194.25 for passage. The least expensive toll was 36 Cent s and is not credited to a ship, but to American adventurer Richard Halliburton who swam the canal in 1928. Panama Canal Authority FAQ The average toll is around $54,000. CURRENT ISSUES More than ninety years since its opening, the canal continues to enjoy great success. Even though world shipping — and the size and design of ships themselves — have changed beyond recognition since the canal was designed, it continues to be a vital link in world trade, carrying more cargo than ever before, with less overhead. Nevertheless, the canal certainly faces a number of potential problems. Efficiency and maintenance .]] There were fears that efficiency and maintenance would suffer following the U.S. withdrawal; however, this does not appear to be the case, and the canal's efficiency appears to be improving under Panamanian control. ''A Man, A Plan, A Canal: Panama Rises'' , Smithsonian Magazine, March 2004 Canal Waters Time (CWT), the average time it takes a vessel to navigate the canal, including waiting time, is a key measure of efficiency; according to the ACP, CWT is decreasing. At the same time, the rate of accidents is at a record low. ''Tonnage Increases; Canal Waters Time and Accidents Drop'' , Panama Canal Authority, December 09, 2003 Increasing volumes of imports from , 2006 . Retrieved April 25 , 2006 . works to deepen and widen the canal.]] The canal administration has invested nearly $1 billion in widening and modernizing the canal, with the aim of increasing capacity by 20 percent. ''Transfer heavy on symbolism, light on change'' , Steve Nettleton, CNN Interactive The canal authority cites a number of major improvements, including the widening and straightening of the Gaillard Cut to reduce restrictions on crossing vessels, the deepening of the navigational channel in Gatun Lake to reduce draft restrictions and improve water supply, and the deepening of the Atlantic and Pacific Entrances of the Canal. This is supported by new vessels, such as a new drill barge and suction dredger, and an increase of the tugboat fleet by 20 percent. In addition, improvements have been made to the operating machinery of the canal, including an increased and improved tug locomotive fleet, the replacement of more than 16 kilometres of locomotive track, and new lock machinery controls. Improvements have been made to the traffic management system to allow more efficient control over ships in the canal. ''Modernization & Improvements'' , Panama Canal Authority The withdrawal of the U.S. has allowed Panama to sell excess electricity produced by the canal's dams, which was previously prohibited by the U.S. government. Only 25% of the Hydroelectric Power produced in the canal system is required to run the canal. Capacity The canal is presently handling more vessel traffic than had ever been envisioned by its builders. In 1934 it was estimated that the maximum capacity of the canal would be around 80 million tons per year; ''The Land Divided - A History of the Panama Canal and Other Isthmian Canal Projects'' , by Gerstle Mack, 1944 as noted above, canal traffic in 2005 consisted of 278.8 million tons of shipping. Despite the gains which have been made in efficiency, the canal is soon expected to approach its maximum capacity. An additional complication is that the proportion of large (close to Panamax-sized) ships transiting is increasing steadily; this may result in a further reduction in the number of transits, even if cargo tonnage rises. In any case, if the canal is to continue to serve the needs of world shipping, action will be required to increase its capacity. Competition Despite having enjoyed a privileged position for many years, the canal is increasingly facing competition from other quarters. Speculation continues over a possible new canal through proposed by the government, and two private proposals for a railway linking ports on the two coasts. ''NICARAGUA: Plan for Inter-Ocean Canal Reborn'' , an analysis of several proposed land and water routes for cargo across Nicaragua, from Inter Press Service Critics have also voiced their concerns over the planned increase in canal tolls, suggesting that the Suez Canal may become a viable alternative for cargo en route from Asia to the U.S. East Coast. Nevertheless, demand for the Panama Canal continues to rise. The increasing rate of melting of ice in the , 2006 . Water issues A significant problem is the decreasing average amount of water in has traditionally played a major role by absorbing this rain, and then releasing it at a steady rate into the lake. With the reduction in vegetation, rain flows quickly down the deforested slopes into the lake, from where the excess is spilled out into the ocean. This results in a shortfall of water during the dry season, when there is comparatively little water flowing to the lake to replenish it. Deforestation also causes Silt to be more easily eroded from the area around Gatún Lake and collect at its bottom, reducing its capacity. Chinese presence Before the 1999 handover of Canal operations, the government of Panama negotiated a 25-year contract for operation of the Canal's container shipping ports (chiefly two facilities at the Atlantic and Pacific outlets) to the Chinese firm Hutchison Whampoa , a Hong Kong -based shipping concern whose owner Li Ka Shing is the wealthiest man in China. American critics have charged that this opens the possibility of a People's Liberation Army occupation and takeover of the canal, or even staging an attack on the United States mainland from the Chinese-controlled facilities. The government points out that the Chinese operate only the ports, not the canal, and American supporters note that the Neutrality Act and the treaty permit the United States to intervene militarily if deemed necessary. THE FUTURE With demand rising, the canal is positioned to be a significant feature of world shipping for the foreseeable future. However, changes in shipping patterns — particularly the increasing numbers of post-Panamax ships — will necessitate changes to the canal if it is to retain a significant market share. It is anticipated that by 2011, 37% of the world's container ships will be too large for the present canal, and hence a failure to expand would result in a significant loss of market share. The maximum sustainable capacity of the present canal, given some relatively minor improvement work, is estimated at between 330 and 340 million PC/UMS tons per year; it is anticipated that this capacity will be reached between 2009 and 2012. Close to 50% of transiting vessels are already using the full width of the locks. ''Relevant Information on the Third Set of Locks Project'' , Panama Canal Authority, April 24 , 2006 . Retrieved April 25 , 2006 An enlargement scheme similar to the 1939 , 2006 . Third Set of Locks Project The current plan is for two new flights of locks: one to the east of the existing Gatún locks, and one southwest of Miraflores locks, each supported by approach channels. Each flight will ascend from ocean level direct to the Gatún Lake level; the existing two-stage ascent at Miraflores / Pedro Miguel will not be replicated. The new lock chambers will feature sliding gates, doubled for safety, and will be 427 metres (1,400 ft) long, 55 metres (180 ft) wide, and 18.3 metres (60 ft) deep; this will allow for the transit of vessels with a beam of up to 49 metres (160 ft), an overall length of up to 366 metres (1,200 ft) and a draft of up to 15 metres (50 ft), equivalent to a container ship carrying around 12,000 20-foot long containers (TEU). The new locks will be supported by new approach channels, including a 6.2 kilometre (3.8 mi) channel at Miraflores from the locks to the Gaillard Cut, skirting around Miraflores Lake. Each of these channels will be 218 metres (715 ft) wide, which will require post-Panamax vessels to navigate the channels in one direction at a time. The Gaillard Cut and the channel through Gatún Lake will be widened to no less than 280 metres (918 ft) on the straight portions and no less than 366 metres (1,200 ft) on the bends. The maximum level of Gatún Lake will be raised from reference height 26.7 metres (87.5 ft) to 27.1 metres (89 ft). Each flight of locks will be accompanied by nine water reutilisation basins (three per lock chamber), each basin being approximately 70 metres (230 ft) wide, 430 metres (1410 ft) long and 5.50 metres (18 ft) deep. These gravity-fed basins will allow 60% of the water used in each transit to be reused; the new locks will consequently use 7% less water per transit than each of the existing lock lanes. The deepening of Gatún Lake, and the raising of its maximum water level, will also provide significant extra water storage capacity. These measures are intended to allow the expanded canal to operate without the construction of new reservoirs. The estimated cost of the project is approximately $5.25 billion. The project is designed to allow for an anticipated growth in traffic from 280 million PC/UMS tons in 2005 to nearly 510 million PC/UMS tons in 2025; the expanded canal will have a maximum sustainable capacity of approximately 600 million PC/UMS tons per year. Tolls will continue to be calculated based on vessel tonnage, and will not depend on the locks used. The new locks are expected to open for traffic in 2015. The present locks, which will be 100 years old by that time, will then have greater access for maintenance, and are projected to continue operating indefinitely. REFERENCES EXTERNAL LINKS
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