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The Ottoman Empire (ic tribes, where the empire's Suzerainty was recognized, are included. The empire interacted with both Eastern and Western cultures throughout its 624-year history. The Ottoman Empire was established by the .). Islambol, meaning "full of Islam " and under which the Turks had known the city since the 11th century, was another variation on the name "Istanbul". In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Ottoman Empire was among the world's most powerful political entities, with the powers of eastern Europe constantly threatened by its steady advance through the Balkans and the southern part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth . Its navy was also a powerful force in the Mediterranean. On several occasions, the Ottoman army invaded central Europe, laying Siege to Vienna in 1529 and again in 1683 in an attempt to conquer the Habsburg domain, and was only finally repulsed by great coalitions of European powers at sea and on land. It was the only non-European power to seriously challenge the rising power of the West between the 15th and 20th Centuries , to such an extent that it became an integral part of European Balance Of Power politics. The dissolution of the empire was a direct consequence of World War I , when the Allied Powers defeated the Central Powers in Europe as well as the Ottoman forces in the Middle East. At the End Of The War , the Ottoman government collapsed and the empire was conquered and divided among the victorious powers. Subsequent years saw the declaration of new states from the remnants of the Ottoman Empire, whose central lands became the Republic Of Turkey . The members of the ruling Osmanlı family were subsequently exiled from Turkey in 1923 and 1924 for political reasons. In 1974 , after 50 years, the Turkish Parliament granted the right to re-acquire Turkish citizenship for the family descendants, which they all did in the following decades in a process completed by the citizenship of the head of the family, Ertuğrul Osman V in 2004 . HISTORY The history of the Ottoman Empire spans more than seven centuries. Older classifications of this history were based on military gains and losses. Current approaches use wider perspectives, such as periods of growth or dissolution, or else use economic perspectives to delineate periods of stagnation and decline. The Ottoman history do also extents under Ottoman Greece , History Of Ottoman Bulgaria , History Of Ottoman Albania , History Of Ottoman Serbia , History Of Ottoman Egypt , History Of Ottoman Algeria . Origins The history of the Ottoman Dynasty can be traced to the Turkic migrations from Asia, which began during the 10th century. The Kayı was one of the main tribes taking part in this migration. When they began to settle in Anatolia in the 12th century, they accepted the suzerainty of the Seljukid State Of Anatolia , which later became a Puppet and Vassal of the Il Khanate of the Mongol Empire . This allowed the Kayı protection from outsiders—which in turn gave them a chance to develop their own internal structure—and gave them some military power through cooperation with the non-Turkic populations of eastern Anatolia. According to tradition, it was in 1299—when the Seljukid state was in the process of collapse—that Osman I declared independence for the Ottoman '' Beylik '' (territory), which had gradually been developed by a group of now-settled Kayı. During this period, the various ''beylik''s Of Anatolia came into conflict with one another, with the Ottoman ''beylik'' eventually emerging as the supreme power in the region. Rise (1299–1453) and his agreement (ﻋﻬﺪنامه ''ahdnâme'') to protect Bosnian Christians]] The rise of the empire defined the characteristics and nature of the state. The Ottomans definitively carved out their own preserve in history under the rule of Mehmed II . Though the Ottoman state existed before Osman I, he is regarded as the founder of the empire, as he named it and was the first '' Bey '' (chieftain) to declare his independence. He extended the frontiers of the empire towards the Byzantine Empire, while other Turkish beyliks suffered from infighting. Under Osman I, the Ottoman capital moved to Bursa . He minted the first Coin under his name, demonstrating the confidence his people had in him. In centuries to come, his age would be recalled with the phrase, "May he be as good as Osman". The Ottoman writers attach great importance to the dream of Osman (the founder) and its initiation of founding of the empire. Osman And Story Of Foundation is also an sample for Turkish oral tradition. The historian Von Hammer also cites the story. According to Albert Howe Lybyer, in his book " The Government of the Ottoman Empire in the Time of Suleiman the Magnificent "; In this period, many discussions occurred among the Ottoman élite on how to organize a new state from the many different cultures of the empire. Given the historical facts of other great empires, the Ottoman élite believed that the power of the sword was not enough to build and maintain a powerful state. It was important to find strong and capable men and bind them together in willing cooperation to conquer large sections of Europe, Asia, and Africa. It was also important to organize and govern their conquests. The Ottoman élite gave precedence to the political ideas that constituted the life of the empire, which became Their Ruling Institution . Mehmed II was only 12 years old when he became Sultan , and he was reputed to have been a capable warrior. His military prowess was demonstrated with his Conquest Of Constantinople . Mehmed II also enjoyed the full support of the empire. He used this to reorganize the state structure and military. Growth (1453–1683) The growth of Ottoman power can be grouped into two main characteristic periods. The first period is that of conquest and growth, from the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 to the death of Suleiman I (the Magnificent) in 1566. This was a period of great achievement for the Ottoman Empire. The second period, extending from 1566 to 1683, is that of the consolidation of a now large and stable state, during which time many changes were occurring in the empire's Social Structure s. In 1389, the Ottomans ended Serbian power at the Battle Of Kosovo , which paved the way for expansion into Europe. Sultan Selim I (1512–1520) expanded the empire's eastern frontiers temporarily, defeating the young Safavid Ismail I ruler of Persia in the Battle Of Chaldiran , establishing a naval presence in the Red Sea . Selim's successor, Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-1566), increased the empire's size and power even further. After capturing Belgrade , Suleiman struck a major blow against Kingdom Of Hungary at the 1526 Battle Of Mohacs , causing that kingdom to fall into anarchy. He then laid Siege To Vienna in 1529, but failed to take the city when he was forced to retreat before the onset of winter. Soon, Transylvania , Walachia , and Moldavia became tributary principalities of the Ottoman Empire. In the east, Suleiman the Magnificent took Baghdad from the Persians in 1535, giving the Ottomans control of the Middle East. The Ottomans reached their " Golden Age " during Suleiman the Magnificent's reign. In 1683, sultan Mehmed IV (1648-1687) reacted to Austria n Habsburg interference in Hungary with an Ottoman offensive which resulted in the second siege at Vienna, the Battle Of Vienna . The siege turned some of the Ottoman allies against it, and Pope Innocent XI abandoned his Secular interests to agitate for a general Crusade against the Ottoman Empire. In the following decades, the Ottoman Empire was not just an occupying force; it was an instrument in European politics. The Battle of Vienna was a turning point in the 300-year struggle between the forces of Central European kingdoms and the Ottoman Empire. It brought about a long period of stagnation, ending 230 years of growth and the empire's expansion into Europe. Stagnation (1683–1827) s'' at a fair]] What followed was a long succession of sultans who were capable but not comparable to Mehmed II, Selim I or Suleiman the Magnificent. The empire was also weakened by many wars, particularly against Persia, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Russia , and Austria. By this period, despite a notable resilience, the Ottoman Empire had ceased to be Europe's foremost power. After the defeat of Kara Mustafa by a combined army of Poland and the Holy Roman Empire at the Battle of Vienna in 1683 the empire lost some of its standing in Europe. In the Treaty Of Karlowitz , that ended the Great Turkish War in 1699, the Ottomans ceded large territories which had been in their possession for two centuries. They also acknowledged, for the first time in their history, that the Austrian Empire could sign a treaty with them on equal terms. Further wars and territories were lost to Austria in the Balkans . Certain areas of the empire, such as Egypt and Algeria , became independent from the Ottoman Empire in all but name, and subsequently came under the influence of France and the United Kingdom . A series of Ten Wars was fought between the Russian and Ottoman empires from the 17th to the 19th centuries. The Ottoman defeat of the Russians in the were lowered; there were attempts to improve the image of the Ottoman state; and the first civilian industrial investments began. These measures, however, failed to put an end to the empire's decline. The technological and scientific advantages the Ottomans had once enjoyed over the European countries were vanishing. Sultan Selim III (1789-1807) initiated several efforts to modernize the system and revitalize the empire. These efforts, however, were hampered by reactionary forces within the empire, primarily religious groups and the Janissary military units. Decline (1828–1908) for explication]] The period of the Ottoman Empire's decline was characterized by the reorganization and transformation of most of the empire's structures in an attempt to bolster the empire against increasingly powerful rivals. This reorganization (تنظيمات ''tanzîmât'') gave its name to the was occupied by the British in 1876. In a significant change from the past, the empire stopped entering conflicts alone and began to enter into alliances with European countries. There were a series of alliances with countries such as France, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and Russia. A prime example of this change was the Crimean War , in which the British, French, Ottomans, and others united against Imperial Russia . It was also during this period that the Ottoman Empire first experienced the effects of the s were external forces, supporting the conflicts for hidden goals. While this period had many achievements, the ability of the Ottoman state to strongly influence the ethnic uprisings was questionable. The Ottoman Empire's First Constitutional Era (برنجى مشروطيت دورى ''Birinci Meşrûtiyyet Devri''), was a short-lived period. A wide-ranging group of reformers, primarily educated in Western Universities , believed that a Constitutional Monarchy could ease the empire's growing social unrest. Through a Military Coup in 1876, they forced Sultan Abdülaziz (1861-1876) to leave his position to Murad V . However, Murad V quickly proved to be mentally ill, and was deposed within a few months. His heir-apparent Abdülhamid II (1876-1909) was invited to assume power, with the promise that he would declare a constitutional monarchy, which he did on 23 November 1876 . The subsequent constitution—called " Basic Law " (قانون اساسى ''Kanun-i Esâsi'')—was written by members of the Young Ottomans , but was in effect for only a few short months. The Ottoman Empire's geopolitical power had always lain in its European territories. As from 1921, the Ottoman possessions in the Balkans started to fade with the rise of European Nationalism . Europe saw this fading as a sign of decline, and in the 19th and 20th centuries it became common to describe the Empire as the "sick man of Europe". This term does not, however, reflect historical reality. The Europeans viewed the empire as a terminally sick person needing to perish, and yet this parallel was largely a misconception. The empire's actual weakness was the cultural gap which separated it from the European powers. In reality, the empire's economy was not in a bad condition: it was, in fact, growing along with the empire's population. The Ottoman administration was in process of modernization, while its education and health systems were both improving. The bulk of the Empire was being urbanized by modern standards, as railroad lines, roads, telegraphs, and shipping were increasing rapidly. On top of everything, the Ottoman state was among the first in the world to take a step toward representative government. Most of the empire's problems were, in fact, the result of European imperialism. Because it was seen as an Islamic state, it was regarded as an enemy by both other European states, as well as by the different national communities within its own borders. It was the Europeans, however, who ultimately caused the most damage to the "sick man of Europe"; as Justin McCarthy states the issue: "The Ottoman Empire was not sick; it was wounded by its enemies, and finally murdered"McCarthy, 3. Dissolution (1908–1922) The period of the Ottoman Empire's final dissolution begins with the onset of the empire's 1908 , a Revolt began that quickly spread throughout the empire and resulted in the sultan announcing the restoration of the 1876 constitution and reconvening parliament. The Committee of Union and Progress managed to defeat Sabaheddin's group in the elections held in 1908. Now in power, the Young Turks introduced a number of new initiatives intended to promote the modernization of the Ottoman Empire. They promoted industrialization and administrative reforms, and their reforms of provincial administration quickly led to a higher degree of centralization. In addition, they implemented the secularization of the legal system and subsidies for the education of women, and altered the administrative structure of the state-operated primary schools. Their domestic reforms were in some ways quite successful, but their foreign policy proved to be disastrous. The three new and Bulgaria in March 1912 and between Greece and Bulgaria in May 1912. Montenegro subsequently concluded agreements between Serbia and Bulgaria respectively in October 1912. The Serbian-Bulgarian agreement specifically called for the partition of Macedonia which resulted in the First Balkan War . The Second Balkan War soon followed. In a final effort to regain some of these lost territories and to challenge British authority over the Suez canal, a triumvirate—the Three Pashas , led by Minister of War Enver Pasha —agreed to join the Central Powers in World War I . The military activities of the period is covered under Middle Eastern Theatre Of World War I . The Ottoman Empire had some successes in the beginning years of the war. Also under cover of war, they began large-scale deportations and Massacres Of Armenians , eliminating the Armenians from Anatolia by the end of the war. The Allies —including the newly formed Australian And New Zealand Army Corps ("ANZACs")—were defeated in the Battle Of Gallipoli , Iraq , and the Balkans, while British naval landing attempts were repulsed and some territories were regained. Fighting the Russians in the Caucasus , however, the Ottomans lost ground—and over 100,000 soldiers—in a series of battles. The 1917 Russian Revolution gave the Ottomans a chance to regain these areas, but continued British offensives ultimately proved to be too much. The Ottomans were eventually defeated due to key attacks by the British general Edmund Allenby , as well as assistance from the Arab Revolt and the Republic Of Armenia . The Armenian Republic was declared during the war, and Ottoman territories were annexed. ]] The initial peace agreement with the Ottoman Empire was the Armistice Of Mudros , followed by the Treaty Of Sèvres . The United Kingdom obtained virtually everything it had sought—according to the secret Sykes-Picot Agreement made together with France in 1916, while the war was still going on—from the empire's partition. The other powers of the Triple Entente , however, became entangled in the Turkish War Of Independence . Turkish National Movement and Turkish War Of Independence are developed against the plans of the Allies. Angered by the Sèvres agreement, Mustafa Kemal —who had been an important force at the 1915 Battle of Gallipoli—raised an army that expelled the Greeks, the Italians, and the French, confronted the Republic of Armenia, and eventually threatened the British as well. On 23 April 1920 , these Turkish Revolutionaries , under Mustafa Kemal's leadership, formed a parliament (the ''Büyük Millet Meclisi'', or Grand National Assembly ) in Ankara , so as to direct the war against the invading forces. In the end, these revolutionaries asserted their right to an independent national existence. The final blow to the Ottoman Empire came on 1 November 1922 —after the expulsion of the invading forces—when the Grand National Assembly abolished the sultanate. The last sultan, Mehmed VI Vahdettin (1918-1922), left the country on 17 November, and the Republic of Turkey was officially declared on 29 October 1923 . The title of caliphate—the very last official remnant of the empire—was constitutionally abolished several months later, on 3 March 1924 . Fall Of The Ottoman Empire explains the main reasons that contributed to the end of the empire. The fall of the Ottoman state is often attributed to the failure of its economic structure. Size of the empire had its problems. Communication Technology , of its time, did not migrate into state structure. The Trade dynamics was based on non-state elements. By many accounts, the circumstances surrounding the Fall Of The Ottoman Empire closely paralleled the Fall Of Byzantium , particularly in terms of the ongoing tensions among the empires' populations and its inability to relate with them. In the case of the Ottomans, the introduction of a parliamentary system during the Tanzimat was too late to reverse the damage. STATE See Also: State organisation of the Ottoman Empire The Ottoman state revolutionized its administrative system with the aid and experience of Greeks and other Christians, Muslims, and Jews, while many other states still held tightly to their own religions and national identities. The rapidly expanding state utilized skilled local people to manage the empire, people who were often selected from among loyal Phanariot Greeks , Armenians , and others. From the perspective of the West, this eclectic administration was apparent even in the diplomatic correspondence of the empire, which was undertaken in the Greek Language . In diplomatic circles, the empire was often referred to as the " Sublime Porte ", a literal translation of the Ottoman باب عالی (''Bâb-ı Âlî''), which was the one gate of the imperial Topkapı Palace that was open to foreigners and was where the sultan greeted ambassadors. Like the Byzantines before them, the Ottomans practiced a system in which the state had control of the clergy. In the Ottoman judiciary, for example, the courts were run by ''kadı'' (قاضی), who were religious judges appointed by the sultan and who exercised direct control over members of the religious establishment. The Byzantine forms of land tenure were largely retained—with a number of unique adjustments—in the Ottoman Empire. At the same time, however, certain pre-Islamic Turkish practices that had survived the influx of administrative and legal practices from Islamic Iran continued to be important in Ottoman administrative circles. Ultimately, then, the Ottoman administrative system was a blend of influences derived from the Turkish nomads, the Byzantines, and the Islamic world. Throughout Ottoman history, however—despite the sultan's supreme '' De Jure '' authority and the Grand Vizier's sometime '' De Facto '' one—there were many insistences in which local governors acted with a degree of independence, sometimes even in opposition to the ruler. There are, for instance, eleven incidences in which the sultan was dethroned because he was perceived as a threat to the state. On the other hand, although new sultans were always chosen from among the sons of the previous sultan, there was a strong educational system in place that was geared towards eliminating the unfit and establishing a common trust among the ruling élite for the son before he was actually crowned. Only two failed attempt were made in the whole of Ottoman history to unseat the ruling Osmanlı dynasty, a fact which is suggestive of a high level of political stability. The Ottomans were primarily administrators and not producers in the sense that the empire did not employ a program of economic exploitation, as did the colonial empires of the modern European states. According to Ottoman understanding, the primary responsibility was to defend the empire's land and to secure security and harmony within its borders. House of Osman See Also: Ottoman Dynasty The Ottoman sultan, also known as the padishah, served as the empire's sole regent and was considered to be the embodiment of its government, though he did not always exercise complete control. The Ottoman dynasty is known in Turkish as ''Osmanlı'', meaning "House of Osman". The first rulers in the dynasty called themselves ''bey'', or "chieftain", which was a way of acknowledging the sovereignty of the contemporary , who ruled from 1861 to 1876. The sultan employed many other formal titles as well, such as "Sovereign of the House of Osman", "Sultan of Sultans", and " Khan of Khans". In Europe, the Ottoman padishah was often referred to as "the Grand Turk". Harem The Harem was one of the most important powers of the Ottoman court. It was ruled by the Valide Sultan (or ''Baş Kadın'', 'chief lady'), the mother of the Sultan, and she enjoyed supreme power over the Harem and an exquisite status in the court. Sometimes she got involved in state politics and could diminish the power and position of the Sultan in what was called a Sultanate Of Women (''Kadinlar Sultanati''). Under the Sultan's mother in the hierarchy came the ''Hasseki Sultana'', the queen and mother of the Sultan's first-born son. The Sultan also had four other official wives, the ''Hasseki Kadın''. Below the Sultan's wives came his eight favorite concubines (''ikbalik''s or ''hassodalik''s, literally 'fortunate girl') and then the other concubines in favour of the Sultan (''gözde'' or ''gedik''). Next in rank was the concubines of officials who were ranked below the sultan's concubines. Pupils (''acemi'') and novices (''cariye'' or ''şahgird'') were younger women who either was waiting to be married off to someone or who had not yet been graduated from the Harem School. Palace School The Palace School was the place where the '' Devşirme '' boys where trained. There were palace schools in the old palace in Edirne , one in the Galata Palace north of the Golden Horn in Istanbul and one in the Ibrahim Pasha Palace at the Hippodrome in central Istanbul. When graduating from these after seven years, the boys were ready to become servants for the sultan or other notables, to serve in the Six Divisions of Cavalry or as a Janissary. Some of the most talented ''devşirme'' boys came to the Topkapi Palace where they were trained for high positions within the Ottoman court or military. Imperial Government See Also: Imperial Government of the Ottoman Empire : ''For more details on this topic, see:'' Provinces Of The Ottoman Empire , List Of Ottoman Grand Viziers "]] Though the state apparatus of the Ottoman Empire underwent many reforms during its long history, a number of its basic structures remained consistently the same. Primary among these structures was the primacy of the sultan. Despite important decisions usually being made by the Dîvân , or council of state, the final decision always belonged to the sultan. The Dîvân, in the years when the Ottoman state was still a ''beylik'', was composed of elders of the tribe. It was later modified so as to include professionals from the military and also local élites, such as religious and political advisors. These individuals became known as Vizier s. Later still, beginning in the year 1320, a Grand Vizier (صدر اﻋظم ''Sadr-ı a'zam'') was appointed in order to assume certain of the sultan's responsibilities. The Sublime Porte , which became synonymous with the Ottoman government, was in fact the gate to the Grand Vizier's headquarters and the place where the sultan held the greeting ceremony for foreign ambassadors. At times throughout Ottoman history, the Grand Vizier became as important as, or more important than, the sultan himself. After the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, the Ottoman state became a constitutional monarchy without executive powers, and a parliament was formed, with representatives chosen from the provinces. At the height of its power, the Ottoman Empire contained 29 provinces, in addition to the tributary principalities of Moldavia , Transylvania , and Wallachia . Insignia See Also: Ottoman Flag ; it reads ''Mahmud Khan son of Abdulhamid is forever victorious'']] A Tugra (or tughra) is an outstanding calligraphic imperial rigging, monogram or a kind of signature of Ottoman Sultans. It bears the names of the sultan and his father and the prayer statement “ever victorious” in most. Tugras were carved on Sultan’s seal. The earliest tugra belongs to Orhan Gazi. There are 35 tugras. It became a branch in Ottoman-Arabic Calligraphy . After completing its official role, they became a possession of history. Ottoman Empire used many insignia (flags, tugras, etc) through out times. SOCIETY See Also: Society structure of the Ottoman Empire One of the successes of the Ottoman Empire was the unity that it brought about among its highly varied population. While the main reason was the military might and heavyhandedness in newly invaded territories, one other indirect source of this unity was allowed for by the laws of Islam, which stated that Muslims, Christians, and Jews—who constituted the vast majority of the Ottoman population—were all related in that they were " and invited many Jews to settle in Ottoman territory. Concept of Nation See Also: Millet (Ottoman Empire) Under Ottoman rule the major religious groups were allowed to establish their own communities, called millets, each retaining its own religious laws, traditions, and language under the general protection of the sultan. Millets were led by religious chiefs, who served as secular as well as religious leaders and thus had a substantial interest in the continuation of Ottoman rule. Mehmed II used the conquering army to restore the physical structure of the city. Old buildings were repaired, streets, aqueducts, and bridges were constructed, sanitary facilities were modernized, and a vast supply system was established to provide for the city's inhabitants. From an early date, Greek citizens of Constantinople were able to achieve high positions in the fields of commerce, politics, religion, and the military. The Patriarch Of Constantinople , for example, developed a great degree of power, both religious and political, but was still very tightly controlled by the state. The Phanariot Greeks worked as the sultan's statesmen in Western Europe and as local rulers in the Balkans; and Aegean Greeks were granted wide commercial rights and also developed a fleet that quickly became the empire's maritime weapon. In fact, some Greek citizens prospered to such a degree that they eventually opposed the Greek War Of Independence of 1821–1831, afraid to lose their privileged position in the imperial capital. On the other hand, the Christian population in the Balkans was practically devoid of any rights preventng it for centuries to develop above the level of peasantry. Any signs of dissent were harshly suppressed (e.g. see April Uprising ). The Ottoman Jews enjoyed similar privileges to those of the Phanariot Greeks , and indeed came to enjoy some of the most extensive freedoms in Jewish history. The city of Thessaloniki , for instance, received a great influx of Jews in the 15th century and soon flourished economically to such an extent that, during the 18th century, it was the largest and possibly the most prosperous Jewish city in the world. By the early 20th century, Ottoman Jews—together with Armenian and Greeks—dominated commerce within the Empire. It was, however, the Muslim communities who prospered the most under the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman law did not recognize such notions as ethnicity or citizenship, but instead divided its population according to the rubric of religion; thus, a Muslim of any ethnic background enjoyed precisely the same rights and privileges as a Muslim of Turkish ethnicity. On the other hand, a Christian of Turkish ethnicity had only the restricted political rights of other Christians. Under such conditions, Muslim Arabs of the Middle East and North Africa came to view the Ottoman state as a revived Islamic empire, and were willing to fight and fall for it, as evidenced for example by the 20 October 1827 Battle of Navarino, in which the Egyptians sacrificed their entire naval fleet for the Ottoman cause. Ultimately, the Ottoman Empire's relatively high degree of tolerance on the level of ethnicity proved to be one of its greatest strengths. As Donald Quataert points out, "the Ottoman family was ethnically Turkish in its origins, as were some of its supporters and subjects. But ... the dynasty immediately lost this "Turkish" ethnic identification through intermarriage with many different ethnicities. As for a "Turkish empire", state power relied on a similarly heterogeneous mix of peoples. The Ottoman empire succeeded because it incorporated the energies of the vastly varied peoples it encountered, quickly transcending its roots in the Turkish nomadic migrations from Central Asia into the Middle East."Quataert, 2 Slavery For more details on this topic, see also: ''Unless listed othervise, this text is referenced to "Putnam's monthly magazine of American literature", Section science and art, Volume 5, Issue 30, June 1855 .'' Referring to Ottoman social organization, there were no western form of nobles and there were no western from of "slavery". As coming from a nomadic structure these concepts were alien to Ottomans. The word slavery is used by western observers while they try to locate the social practices with their own understanding. All the soldiers in the Ottoman system were paid Soldiers , including the servants to the court. Devsirme was also paid and had opportunity to reach higher status within the system. When they get older and performed a specific service they were free to go. There were servants that have access to house of the ottoman, which was considered secret to outsider. These man who had access to house had seen as part of family, which brought more responsibilities on both sides than being just a servant. It is accepted as an insult to call an Ottoman man as a slave master. There are incidents that Ottomans responded unsympathetically to people whom mentioned the slavery to them. The trafficking of slavery is forbidden by the Islamic Law . Most of the European references to slavery regarding Ottoman Empire is referred to ... These are generally given by their own parents or their relatives. Also Ottoman System tried to integrate orphans into this system. The money exchanged during the process is coming from childless or people who are willing to accept taking care of them. Black Slaves which brought to Istanbul can not be kept under captivity if they are converted into Islam. These were the main laws of Islam and there was no challenge to it. CULTURE See Also: Culture of the Ottoman Empire For more details on this topic, see also: Many different cultures lived under the umbrella of the Ottoman Empire, and as a result, a specifically "Ottoman" culture can be difficult to define. To some extent, there existed a Turkish Ottoman culture, a Greek Ottoman culture, an Armenian Ottoman culture, and so on. However, there was also, to a great extent, a specific intersecting multi-ethnic culture that can be said to have reached its highest levels among the Ottoman élite, who—far from being monolithic—were in fact composed of a myriad of different ethnic and religious groups. One of the roots of Ottoman culture comes from the Oghuz Turks with their Central Asian Turkic nomadic culture. As the Oghuz passed into Anatolia through Persia over a period of a few hundred years they absorbed many elements of Persian Culture . Following Sultan Mehmed II's capture of Constantinople in 1453, many aspects of Byzantine—and, more broadly, European—culture began to be integrated into Ottoman culture. As the empire expanded in subsequent years, different cultures were brought into this mix, enriching it still further. This Ottoman multicultural perspective reflects on their policies. One of the reasons that the Ottoman Empire lasted as long as it did was the highly tolerant policies pursued originating from their nomadic inheritance. This statement should be taken as a comparison to assimilative Medieval Times (east and west). The Ottoman State pursued multi-cultural and multi-religious policies - accommodating different perspectives. Two examples of this are the Ottoman Justice system and the regional governors. As the Ottomans moved further west, the Ottoman leaders themselves absorbed some of the culture of conquered regions. In addition, with intercultural Marriage s, new cultural structures were gradually added to the Ottomans, creating the characteristic Ottoman elite culture. When compared to common Turkish arts (folkloric), the assimilation of the Ottoman elites to these new cultures is apparent. Architecture See Also: Ottoman architecture Ottoman architecture, influenced by Seljuk, Byzantine and Arab architecture, came to develop a style all of its own. The years 1300-1453 (Rise Period) constitute the early or first Ottoman period, when Ottoman art was in search of new ideas. Concepts of Ottoman architecture mainly circles around mosque as the society and mosque was being visioned as an entity interconnected with city planning and communal life. Beside the mosque there were soup kitchens, theological schools, hospitals, Turkish baths and tombs. During the years of the Stagnation period, principles of architecture deviated from classical times. During the Tulip Era, it was under the influence of the excessive decorations of the west; Baroque, Rococo, Ampir and other styles intermingled. Examples of Ottoman architecture of the classical period, aside from Istanbul and Edirne , can also be seen in Egypt, Tunisia, Algiers, the Balkans and Hungary, where mosques, bridges, fountains and schools were built. Language See Also: Ottoman Turkish language The Ottoman court spoke a version of Turkish, innundated with words from Arabic and Persian. The grammar was still Turkish, but a lot more elaborate than the Turkish people spoke in the streets and villages. The language became so differentiated that people had to hire Arzuhaldjis (request-writers) to be able to communicate with the government. The Sultans had a very mixed ethnic lineage because the Sultans married women from various backgrounds. They spoke their mother tongue: Ottoman, Persian, Turkish, Greek, Arabic and some European languages. All ethnicities who had their own language continued to speak their own language in their family, in villages where two populations lived together, the two populations would often speak each other's language (Cyprus:Greek/Turkish, the Balkans: Albanian/Greek/Serbian/Bulgarian, Eastern Turkey: Kurdish/Turkish/Armenian, Northeastern Turkey: Laz, Georgian, Greek, Turkish). In cosmopolitan cities, people often spoke their family languages, some Ottoman if they were educated, and some Arabic if they were Muslim. In the last two centuries, French and English emerged as popular languages where the elite learned French at school, and used European products as a fashion statement. Music See Also: Ottoman classical music For more details on this topic, see also: Quite a few Ottoman Sultans themselves were musicians. Two musical cultures developed in the Ottoman society due to geographic and cultural differences between the Palace and the various regions. In Istanbul, in the Palace, the Byzantine Orthodox Chants, Islamic instruments, Persian Poems transformed into the what is called today, the Turkish Classical Music. Turkish Classical Music, is a form of music, which has specific rythmic rules that the song writer needs to abide, and these are called the "Makam". Kurdili Hicazkar, Rast etc.. are types of these Makams. A complex orchestra can be used for the background music, or it can be sung solo. Typical instruments are a combination of both Eastern and Western instruments: Oud, Davoul, Kanun, Piano, Violin... There are some adaptations of Western Music to the Turkish Makams as well such as a Waltz by Dede Efendi. In the provinces, several different kinds of Folk music were created. The most dominant regions with their distinguished musical styles are : Balkan-Thracian Turkus, North-Eastern Turkus(Laz), Aegean Turkus, Central Anatolian Turkus, Eastern Anatolian Turkus, and Caucasian Turkus. Istanbul does not have any Turkus, because it has the Turkish Classical Music. LIFESTYLE See Also: Lifestyle of the Ottoman Empire The Ottoman court life in many aspects assembled ancient traditions of the Persia n Shah s, but had many Greek and European influences. In general, Turks take their shoes off in the house. There are slippers that are designated to home use. This custom was carried through centuries as the Turkish babies have been free to move and adults can rest on the floor. This custom aimed in keeping the carpet and kilim clean. Women and girls take up carpet and kilim weaving as a means of earning money. The court (Topkapi) See Also: Topkapi Palace
The culture that evolved around the court was known as the Ottoman Way. To get a high position in the empire, one must be skilled in the Way. It included knowing both Persian , Arabic and Ottoman Turkish and how to behave in court, in front of the sultan, and in formal and religious occasions. The Ottoman Way also used to separate the nobles from the lower classes. Peasants and villagers were called Turks, while nobles were Ottomans. The sultan was served by an army of pages. Twenty-five of these served in the kitchen and in the Larder . Others served in the Treasury and the Armoury, maintaining the sultan's treasures and weapons. There where also a branch of servants that were said to serve the Chamber of Campaign, i.e. they accompanied the sultan and his court while on campaign. The best of the pages was chosen to serve the sultan in person. One was responsible for the sultan's clothening, one served him with drinks, one carried his weaponry, one helped him mount his horse, one was responsible for making his turban and a barber shaved the sultan every day. The Harem was under the administration of the Eunuchs , of which there were two categories, Black and White Eunuchs. Black Eunuchs were Africans who served the concubines and officials in the Harem and together with chamber maidens of low rank. The White Eunuchs were Europeans from the Balkan s. They served the recruits at the Palace School (see below) and were from 1582 prohibited from entering the Harem. An important figure in the Ottoman court was the Chief Black Eunuch (''Kızlar Ağası'' or ''Harem Ağası''). In control of the Harem and a perfect net of spies in the Black Eunuchs, the Chief Eunuch was involved in almost every palace intrigue and could thereby gain power over either the sultan or one of his viziers, ministers or other court officials. The Harem was a small world in itself. Often the mother of the current sultan ( Valide Sultan ) was a politically influential person. She also selected the concubines for her son. The concubines could live in or around the palace for their entire life, and it supported them with whatever they needed. Women not found suitable for the sultan were married off to eligible bachelors from the Ottoman nobility or sent back home. Female servants did all the chores such as serving food and making the beds. Male (sometimes Eunuch ) white and black servants did the hard work such as shopping, guarding the palaces and maintaining the gardens and palaces. Every prince has his own place. It is a tradition to take the bride from her house and take it to where she will be building her new familiy. See also: Seraglio . The provincial capitals Apart from the Ottoman court, there were also large metropolitan centers were the Ottoman influence expressed itself with a diversity similar to metropolises of today : New York, London, Paris. Sarajevo, Skopje, Thessaloniki, Damascus, Baghdad, Beirut, Jerusalem, Mecca were other cities that tasted the Ottoman diversity with their own small versions of Provincial Administration replicating the culture of the Ottoman court locally. RELIGION For more details on this topic, see: Following the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Mehmed II did not disband the Greek Orthodox Ecumenical Patriarchate , but instead brought it under close control by installing Gennadius II Scholarius as the patriarch—after receiving from him a hefty feeMansel, 10—and thus establishing him as the Ethnarch of the Millet of Rum; that is, the Orthodox Christian subjects of the empire, regardless of their ethnicity. Under the ''millet'' system—which applied to other non-Muslim religious groups as well—people were considered subjects of the empire but were not subject to the Muslim faith or Muslim law. The Orthodox ''millet'', for instance, was still officially legally subject to Justinian's Code , which had been in effect in the Byzantine Empire for 900 years. Also, as the largest group of non-Muslim subjects (ذمي '' Zimmi '') of the Islamic Ottoman state, the Orthodox ''millet'' was granted a number of special privileges in the fields of politics and commerce, in addition to having to pay higher taxes than Muslim subjects. Similar ''millet''s were established for the Ottoman Jewish community, who were under the authority of the '' Haham Başı '' or Ottoman Chief Rabbi ; the Armenian Orthodox community, who were under the authority of a head Bishop ; and a number of other religious communities as well. Adoption of Islam Before adopting Islam —a process that was greatly facilitated by the Abbasid victory at the 751 CE Battle Of Talas , which ensured Abbasid influence in Central Asia—the Turkic peoples practised a variety of Shamanism . After this battle, many of the various Turkic tribes—including the Oghuz Turks, who were the ancestors of both the Seljuks and the Ottomans—gradually converted to Islam, and brought the religion with them to Anatolia beginning in the 11th century CE. State and Religion Largely for practical reasons, the Ottoman Empire was, in a broad sense, tolerant towards its non-Muslim subjects; it did not, for instance, forcibly convert all of them to Islam. Nevertheless, non-Muslims were devoid of most rights and were not allowed to take active part in Ottoman state affairs. The sultans took their primary duty to be service to the interests of the state, which could not survive without taxes and a strong administrative system. The state's relationship with the Greek Orthodox Church , for example, was largely peaceful, and the church's structure was kept intact and largely left alone but under close control and scrutiny until the Greek War Of Independence of 1821–1831 and, later in the 19th and early 20th centuries, the rise of the Ottoman Constitutional Monarchy , which was driven to some extent by nationalistic currents. Other churches, like the Bulgarian Orthodox Church , were dissolved and placed under the jurisdiction of the Greek Orthodox Church. On the other hand, the empire often served as a refuge for the persecuted and exiled Jews of Europe, as for example following the expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492, when Sultan Beyazid II welcomed them into Ottoman lands. Religious Freedoms Although the Ottoman state did not directly and harshly pursue a policy of forced individual conversion, it did decree that, for reasons of outward distinction, the people of the different ''millet''s wear specific colors of, for instance, turbans and shoes—a policy that was not, however, always followed by Ottoman citizensMansel, 20–21. Moreover—from the time of Murad I through the 17th century—the Ottoman state also put into effect the '' Devşirme '' (دوشيرم), a policy of filling the ranks of the Ottoman army and administrative system by means of forcefully collecting young Christian boys from their families and taking them to the capital for education and an eventual career either in the Janissary military corps or, for the most gifted, the Ottoman administrative system. Most of the children thus collected were from the empire's Balkan territories, where the ''devşirme'' system was referred to as the "blood tax". The children themselves were not forcefully converted to Islam—though they ended up becoming Islamic due to the milieu in which they were raised—but any children that they had were considered to be free Muslims "Devsirme", Encyclopaedia of the Orient . ECONOMY See Also: Economy of the Ottoman Empire The economic structure of the Empire was defined by the geopolitical structure. The Ottoman Empire stood in between West and East, thus blocking the route eastward and forcing Spanish and Portuguese navigators to set out in search of a new route to the Orient. The empire was controlling the route that Marco Polo once used. When Christopher Columbus discovered America, the Ottoman Empire was at its highest position - an economical power which extended over three continents. Current Ottoman studies imply that the change in politics between Ottomans and central Europe did depend on the opening of the new sea routes. It is also possible to see the decay of the Ottoman Empire by measuring the diminishing significance of the land routes. While central Europe was moving forward, Ottoman were holding on to their traditions. The pragmatic thinking of Ottomans that once helped to reform the systems left behind by Roman Empire was once again giving out the same signs which Ottomans found centuries ago. LAW See Also: Law of the Ottoman Empire |
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