| Mahmud Of Ghazni |
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| 971 births | |
| 1030 deaths | |
| ghaznavid empire | |
| history of iran | |
| history of afghanistan | |
| history of india | |
| history of pakistan | |
| pederasty in the muslim world | |
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Mahmud of Ghazni ( from 997 until his death. Mahmud turned the former provincial city of Ghazni (in present-day Afghanistan) into the wealthy capital of an extensive empire which included today's Afghanistan , most of modern Iran , and parts of Pakistan and northern India . LINEAGE Mahmud's grandfather was Alptigin , a Turkic general from Balkh in Turkestan who crossed the Hindu Kush mountains to seize Ghazni, located strategically on the road between Kabul and Kandahar . Alptigin was succeeded in 977 by his son Sabuktigin , who enlarged upon his Alptigin's conquests, extending his domain north to Balkh , west to Kandahar and Khorasan , and east to the Indus River . Sabuktigin was recognized by the Caliph in Baghdad as governor of his dominions. Sultan Alptigin died in 997 , and was succeeded by his younger son Sultan Ismail Of Ghazni . Mahmud rebelled against his younger brother, Sultan Ismail Of Ghazni , and took over the Ghazni as the new Sultan. MILITARY CAMPAIGNS Sultan Mahmud's first campaign was against the Qarakhanid Empire in the North to his Empire. After his defeat he had to enlist the alliance of Seljuk Turks in southern Soghdia and Khwarazm and diplomatically secure his north by 998. His first campaign to the south against the Ismaili Fatimid Kingdom at Multan in a bid to curry political favour and recognition with the Abbassid Caliphate engaged with the Fatimid s elsewhere. Raja Jayapala of the Hindu Shahi Dynasty of Gandhara at this point attempted to gain retribution for an earlier military defeats at the hands of Ghazni under Mehmud's father in the late 980 s that lost Gandhara , the Khyber Pass region as far east as the Indus . Mahmud had already had relationships with the leadership in Balkh through marriage, and its local Emir, Abu Nasr Mohammad , offered his services to the Sultan and his daughter to Mahmud's son, Muhammad. After Nasr’s death Mahmud brought Balkh under his leadership. This alliance greatly helped him during his expeditions into Northern India. requested to record his campaigns
Indian Campaigns
End of Indian Campaigns Mahmud's campaigns seem to be motivated by both religious zeal against both the Fatimid s Shiites and non-Muslims; Buddhists , Jains and Hindus . His principal drive remained the Shiites, Buyid Iran and favor and recognition of independence from the Abbassid Caliphate and the wealth plundered from the Rajput Confederacy went a long way towards these ends. By 1027, Mahmud had accomplished this as well as capturing most of Pakistan and North Western India and obtained formal recognition of Ghazni's sovereignty from the Abbasid Khalifah , Al-Qadir Billah, as well as the title of ud Daula . There is considerable evidence from writings of Al-Biruni , Soghidan , Uyghur and Manichean texts that the Buddhist s, Hindu s and Jain s were accepted as People Of The Book and references to Buddha as Burxan or a prophet can be found. After the initial destruction and pillage Buddhists, Jains and Hindus were granted protected subject status as Dhimmi s. The history of Mahmud is marked by a large number of civilian deaths references and details and a large baggage train of slaves as plunder. This has led to the accusation that he attempted to convert non- Muslim s by force. He is also on record for having vowed to raid Hind every year reference . The later invasions of Mahmud were specifically directed to temple towns as Indian temples were depositories of great wealth, in cash, golden idols, diamonds, and jewellery; Nagarkot , Thanesar , Mathura , Kanauj , Kalinjar and Somnath . Mahmud's armies routinely stripped the temples of their wealth and then destroyed them; Varanasi , Ujjain , Maheshwar , Jwalamukhi, and Dwarka . The Indian kingdoms of Nagarkot , Thanesar , Kannauj , and Kalinjar were all conquered and left in the hands of Hindu, Jain and Buddhist Kings as vassal states and he was pragmatic enough not to shirk making alliances and enlisting local peoples into his armies at all ranks. Some of his raids were to quell rebellions by his newly acquired vassals. The last four years of Mahmud's life were spent contending with the influx of Oghuz Turkic horse tribes from Central Asia , the Buyid Dynasty and rebellions by Seljuk Turks . RELATIONSHIP WITH AYAZ It is related that Mahmud Fell In Love With A Young Male Slave by the name of Ayaz . The love he bore his favourite, and the latter's devotion, became a staple of Islamic lore, emblematic of ideal love affairs. The Sultan, because of the power of his love, becomes "a slave to his slave." Ayaz became the paragon of the ideal beloved, and a model of purity in Sufi literature. In 1021 the Sultan raised Ayaz to kingship, awarding him the throne of Lahore . The poet Sa'adi was among those celebrating the two. "Under the Turkish Ghaznavid, Seljuk, and Khawarazmshah rulers of Iran in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, pederasty was quite common in courtly circles." [http://www.glbtq.com/literature/mid_e_lit_persian,2.html LEGACY By the end of his reign, his empire extended from Kurdistan in the west to Samarkand in the northeast, and from the Caspian Sea to the Yamuna . Although his raids carried his forces across Indian sub-continent, only the Punjab and Sindh , modern Pakistan , came under his permanent rule; Kashmir , the Doab , Rajasthan and Gujarat remained under the control of the local Rajput dynasties. The wealth brought back to Ghazni was enormous, and contemporary historians (e.g. Abolfazl Beyhaghi , Ferdowsi ) give glowing descriptions of the magnificence of the capital, as well as of the conqueror's munificent support of literature. he transformed Ghazni into one of the leading cities of Central Asia, patronizing scholars, establishing colleges, laying out gardens, and building mosques, palaces, and caravansaries. On April 30, 1030 , Sultan Mahmud died in Ghazni, at the age of 59 years. Sultan Mahmud had contracted Malaria during his last invasion. The medical complication from malaria had caused lethal tuberculosis. He had been a gifted military commander, and during his rule, universities were founded to study various subjects such as mathematics, religion, the humanities, and medicine&. Islam was the main religion of his kingdom and the Perso-Afghan dialect Dari was made the official language. The Ghaznavid Empire was ruled by his successors for 157 years, but after Mahmud it never reached anything like the same splendour and power. The expanding Seljuk Turkish empire absorbed most of the Ghaznavid west. The Persian Ghorid s captured Ghazni c. 1150 , and Muhammad Ghori captured the last Ghaznavid stronghold at Lahore in 1187 . The Ghaznavids went on to live as the Nasher-Khans in their home of Ghazni until the 20th century. Pakistan today has named one of its medium-range Missile s in honour of him. SEE ALSO
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