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This is an (partial) overview of individuals that contributed to the development of liberal theory on a worldwide scale and therefore are strongly associated with the liberal tradition and instrumental in the exposition of political Liberalism as a Philosophy . The contributors are listed in approximately chronological order, beginning from the roots of Realism , Rationalism and Humanism in the Renaissance , all movements which were influential in the creation of what is thought of as liberal political theory. These include Desiderius Erasmus , Hugo Grotius and Baruch Spinoza through the Age Of Reason 's English philosopher John Locke and the Frenchman Voltaire and other philosophers of The Enlightenment . Liberalism as a specifically named ideology begins in the late 18th Century as a movement towards self-government and away from Aristocracy . It included the ideas of self-determination, the primacy of the individual and the nation, as opposed to the family and the state, as being the fundamental units of law, politics and economy. Since then liberalism has broadened to include a wide range of approaches from Americans Ronald Dworkin , Richard Rorty and Francis Fukuyama as well as the India n Amartya Sen , the Peru vian Hernando Do Soto and the Belgian Dirk Verhofstadt . Some of these people moved away from Liberalism , while others espoused other Ideologies before turning to liberalism. There are many different views of what constitutes liberalism, and some liberals would feel that some of the people on this list were not true liberals. It is intended to be suggestive rather than exhaustive. Theorists whose ideas were mainly typical for one country should be listed in that country's section of Liberalism Worldwide . Generally only ''thinkers'' are listed, politicians are only listed when they, beside their active political work, also made substantial contributions to liberal theory. It is the intention to add one or two lines of information on the theorists explaining why they are on the list with reference to the works important in this matter. More comprehensive articles can be found by clicking on the thinkers name. The list is divided in three sections:
The following people are included: ="Humanism"= NICCOLò MACHIAVELLI Niccolò Machiavelli (Florence, 1469-1527), best known for his ''Il Principe'' was the founder of realist political philosophy, advocated republican government, citizen armies, division of power, protection of personal property, and restraint of government expenditure as being necessary to the liberties of a republic. He wrote extensively on the need for individual initiative - ''virtu'' - as an essential characteristic of stable government. He argued that liberty was the central good which government should protect, and that "good people" would make good laws, where as people who had lost their virtu could maintain their liberties only with difficulty. His Discourses on Livy outlined realism as the central idea of political study and favored "Republics" over "Principalties". Anti-statist liberals consider Machiavelli's distrust as his main message, noting his call for a strong state under a strong leader, who should use any means to establish his position, whereas liberalism is an ideology of individual freedom and voluntary choices. However, often people associate Machiavelli as a proponent of the anti-liberal idea that "the end justifies the means".
DESIDERIUS ERASMUS Desiderius Erasmus (Netherlands, 1466-1536) was an advocate of the doctrine now known as Humanism , critic of entrenched interests, irrationality and superstition. Erasmusian societies formed across Europe, to some extent in response to the turbulence of the Reformation . He dealt with the freedom of the will, a crucial point. In his De libero arbitrio diatribe sive collatio (1524), he analyzes with great cleverness and good humour the Lutheran exaggeration of the obvious limitations on human freedom.
HUGO GROTIUS Hugo Grotius or '''Hugo de Groot''' (Netherlands, 1583-1645), laid the foundations for international law, based on natural law, in his book ''Mare Liberum'' (Free Seas) formulated the new principle that the sea was international territory and all nations were free to use it for seafaring trade, and in ''De jure belli ac pacis libri tres'' (Three books on laws of war and peace) presented a theory of just war and argued that all nations are bound by the principles of natural law. THOMAS HOBBES Thomas Hobbes (England, 1588-1679) theorized that government is the result of individual actions and human traits, and that it was motivated primarily by "interest", a term which would become crucial in the development of a liberal theory of government and political economy, since it is the foundation of the idea that individuals can be self-governing and self-regulating. His work ''Leviathan'', did not advocate this viewpoint, but instead that only a strong government could restrain unchecked interest: it did, however, advance a proto-liberal position in arguing for an inalienable "right of nature," the right to defend oneself, even against the state. Though it is problematic to classify Hobbes himself as a liberal, his work influenced Locke, Hamilton, Jefferson, Madison and many other later liberals. BARUCH SPINOZA Baruch Spinoza (Netherlands, 1632-1677) is in his ''Tractatus Theologico-Politicus'' and ''Tractatus Politicus'' a proto-liberal defending the value of Separation Of Church And State as well as forms of Democracy . In the first mentioned book, Spinoza expresses an early criticism of religious intolerance and a defense of Secular Government . Spinoza was a thoroughgoing Determinist who held that absolutely everything that happens occurs through the operation of Necessity . For him, even human behaviour is fully determined, freedom being our capacity to know we are determined and to understand why we act as we do. So freedom is not the possibility to say "no" to what happens to us but the possibility to say "yes" and fully understand why things should necessarily happen that way.
=From Locke to Mill= JOHN LOCKE The notions of John Locke (United Kingdom, 1632-1704) of a " Government with the consent of the governed" and man's Natural Rights — Life , Liberty , and Estate ( Property ) as well on Tolerance , as laid down in ''A letter concerning toleration'' and ''Two treatises of government'' —had an enormous influence on the development of Liberalism . Developed a theory of property resting on the actions of individuals, rather than on descent or nobility. One could argue that Liberal Theory starts with Locke, influenced by the proto-liberal contributions listed above.
JOHN TRENCHARD John Trenchard (United Kingdom, 1662-1723) was co-author, with Thomas Gordon of ''Cato's Letters''. These newspaper essays condemned Tyranny and advanced principles of Freedom Of Conscience and Freedom Of Speech and were a main vehicle for spreading the Concept s that had been developed by John Locke .
CHARLES DE MONTESQUIEU Charles De Montesquieu (France, 1689-1755)
THOMAS GORDON Thomas Gordon (United Kingdom, 169?-1750) was co-author, with John Trenchard of ''Cato's Letters''. These newspaper essays condemned Tyranny and advanced principles of Freedom Of Conscience and Freedom Of Speech and were a main vehicle for spreading the Concept s that had been developed by John Locke .
FRANçOIS QUESNAY François Quesnay (France, 1694-1774)
VOLTAIRE Voltaire (France, 1694-1778)
BENJAMIN FRANKLIN Benjamin Franklin (United States, 1706-1790) was an inventor, scientist, writer, entrepreneur, diplomat and statesman was an advocate for free trade and the end of mercantilism, industrialization, abolition of slavery, free public libraries, democratic government and national unity. His ''Autobiography'' is also a seminal work on the life of a free individual who is self-governing in his pursuit of accomplishment, without need for an over-arching state, allegiance or religion to force adherence to basic moral and ethical principles.
DAVID HUME David Hume (United Kingdom, 1711-1776)
JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU Jean-Jacques Rousseau (France, 1712-1778) promulgated the idea that men were naturally free, but had to be educated to live in society. This required a natural liberty and a "national will" which could be directed to improvement of the society. He is famous for the quote "men are born free, but are everywhere in chains", and urging that Europeans throw off the restrictions that they lived under, and substitute, instead, a self-governing moral basis. However, Rousseau's ideal society was very illiberal: he advocated an unhindered power of the sovereign over the body and property of the individual; he spoke against private ownership and human rights, such as the freedom of press.
DENIS DIDEROT Denis Diderot (France, 1713-1784)
JEAN LE ROND D'ALEMBERT Jean Le Rond D'Alembert (France, 1717-1783)
SAMUEL ADAMS Samuel Adams (United States, 1722-1803) RICHARD PRICE Richard Price (United Kingdom, 1723-1791)
ANDERS CHYDENIUS Anders Chydenius (Finland (then a part of the Swedish realm), 1729-1803) His book ''Den Nationale Winsten'' proposed roughly same the ideas as Adam Smith 's ''Wealth of Nations'', a decade earlier, including foundations of Liberalism and Capitalism and (roughly) the '' Invisible Hand ''. He demanded complete economic and individual freedom, including the freedom of religion (although he was a priest), worker's rights to freely move and choose their professions and employers, the freedom of speech and trade and abolitions of all privileges and price and wage controls. He was also a successful politician, his achievements include the freedom of the press in Sweden .
ADAM SMITH Adam Smith (United Kingdom, 1723-1790)
WILLIAM BLACKSTONE Sir William Blackstone (United Kingdom 1723-1780)
IMMANUEL KANT Immanuel Kant (Germany, 1724-1804)
ANNE ROBERT JACQUES TURGOT Anne Robert Jacques Turgot (France, 1727-1781)
EDMUND BURKE Edmund Burke (United Kingdom 1729-1797, Whig politician) contributed to liberal theory by emphasizing the importance of rationality in politics, self-interest as the basis for government and moderation against extremes. Also considered important by Conservatism for his belief in the respect for tradition.
JOSEPH PRIESTLEY Joseph Priestley (United Kingdom/United States, 1733-1804)
AUGUST LUDWIG VON SCHLöZER August Ludwig Von Schlözer (Germany, 1735-1809) PATRICK HENRY Patrick Henry (United States, 1736-1799)
THOMAS PAINE Thomas Paine (United Kingdom/United States, 1737-1809)
THOMAS JEFFERSON Thomas Jefferson (United States, 1743-1826) was the third President of the United States and author of the Declaration Of Independence . He also wrote Notes On The State Of Virginia . He was an important champion of inalienable individual rights, including the freedom of religion and the abolition of slavery (in which he did not succeed). His ideas were repeated in many other liberal revolutions around the world, including the (early) French Revolution . MARQUIS DE CONDORCET Marquis De Condorcet (France, 1743-1794)
JEREMY BENTHAM Jeremy Bentham (United Kingdom, 1748-1832) Classical liberal, an early advocate of Utilitarianism , Animal Welfare and women's rights. He had many students all around the world, including John Stuart Mill and several political leaders. His followers were called Filosophical Radicals . Bentham demanded economic and individual freedom, including the separation of the state and church, freedom of expression, completely equal rights for women, the end of slavery and colonialism, uniform democracy, the abolition of physical punishment, also on children, the right for divorce, free prices, free trade and no restrictions on interest. Bentham was not a Libertarian : he supported inheritance tax, restrictions on monopol power, pensions, health insurance and other social security, but called for prudence and careful consideration in any such governmental intervention. EMMANUEL SIEYèS Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès (France, 1748-1836) JAMES MADISON James Madison (United States, 1751-1836) was co-Author, with Alexander Hamilton and John Jay of ''The Federalist Papers'', and one of the architects of both the American Constitution of 1787, as well as the Bill of Rights (1789). Later President of the United States (1809-1817).
ALEXANDER HAMILTON Alexander Hamilton (United States, 1755-1804)
ANNE LOUISE GERMAINE DE STAëL Anne Louise Germaine De Staël (France, 1766-1817)
BENJAMIN CONSTANT Benjamin Constant (France, 1767-1830)
JEAN-BAPTISTE SAY Jean-Baptiste Say (France, 1767-1832)
WILHELM VON HUMBOLDT Wilhelm Von Humboldt (Germany, 1767-1835)
DAVID RICARDO David Ricardo (United Kingdom, 1772-1823) JAMES MILL James Mill (United Kingdom, 1773-1836)
FRIEDRICH LIST Friedrich List (Germany, 1789-1846)
JOHAN RUDOLF THORBECKE The Dutch statesman Johan Rudolf Thorbecke (Netherlands, 1798-1872) was the main theorist of Dutch liberalism in the nineteenth century, outlining a more or less democratic alternative to the absolute monarchy. His main theoretical work was ''Over het hedendaagsche staatsburgerschap'' (1844). He became prime minister in 1848, thus starting numerous reforms in Dutch politics. FRéDéRIC BASTIAT Frédéric Bastiat (France, 1801-1850)
HARRIET MARTINEAU Harriet Martineau (United Kingdom, 1802-1876)
RALPH WALDO EMERSON Ralph Waldo Emerson (United States, 1803-1882) was an American philosopher who argued that the basic principles of government were mutable, and that government is required only in so far as people are not self-governing. Proponent of Democracy, and of the idea that a democratic people must have a democratic ethics.
ALEXIS DE TOCQUEVILLE Alexis De Tocqueville (France, 1805-1859)
WILLIAM LLOYD GARRISON William Lloyd Garrison (United States, 1805-1879)
FRIEDRICH SCHILLER Friedrich Schiller (Germany, 1759-1805) =Mill and further, the development of (international) liberalism= See for the somehwat different development of an American liberalism after World War II the section on American Liberal Theory . American liberal theorists who also had influence on liberalism outside the United States are included in this section. JOHN STUART MILL John Stuart Mill (United Kingdom, 1806-1873) is one of the first champions of modern "liberalism." As such, his work on Political Economy and Logic helped lay the foundation for advancements in empirical science and public policy based on verifiable improvements. Strongly influenced by Bentham's Utilitarianism , he disagrees with Kant's intuitive notion of right and formulates the "highest normative principle" of morals as: ''Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness.'' Some consider Mill as the founder of Social Liberalism . Although Mill was mainly for Laissez Faire , he accepted interventions in the economy, such as a tax on alcohol, if there were sufficient utilitarian grounds. Mill was also a champion of women's rights.
ABRAHAM LINCOLN Abraham Lincoln (United States, 1809-1865) is best known as the President of the United States from 1861-1865. He argued for the theory of political equality and the supremacy of natural law over present political arrangements. Most famous for his debates with Stephen Douglas, Second Inaugural Address and Gettysburg Address, as well as the Emancipation Proclamation - which converted the American Civil War into a struggle to end slavery. JUAN BAUTISTA ALBERDI Juan Bautista Alberdi (Argentina, 1810-1884)
HENRY DAVID THOREAU Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862)
JACOB BURCKHARDT Jacob Burckhardt (Switzerland, 1818-1897) State as derived from cultural and economic life
HERBERT SPENCER Herbert Spencer (United Kingdom, 1820-1903)
THOMAS HILL GREEN Thomas Hill Green (United Kingdom, 1836-1882) CARL MENGER Carl Menger (Austria, 1840-1921)
WILLIAM GRAHAM SUMNER William Graham Sumner (United States, 1840-1910)
OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES JR. Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. (United States, 1841-1935) was a jurist and writer. He wrote the influential book on legal theory ''The Common Law'', which traced the creation of individual rights from familial rights common under Roman and Feudal law, and presented the "objective" theory of judicial interpretation. Specifically that the standard for intent and culpability should be that of the "reasonable man", and that individuals can be said to objectively intend the reasonable consequences of their actions. LUJO BRENTANO Ludwig Joseph Brentano (Germany, 1844-1931) TOMáS MASARYK Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk (Czechoslovakia, 1850-1937) EUGEN VON BöHM-BAWERK Eugen Von Böhm-Bawerk (Austria, 1851-1914)
LOUIS BRANDEIS Louis Brandeis (1856-1941) THORSTEIN VEBLEN Thorstein Veblen (1857-1926) is best known as the author of ''Theory of the Leisure Class''. Veblen was influential to a generation of American liberalism searching for a rational basis for the economy beyond corporate consolidation and "cut throat competition". Veblen's central argument was that individuals require sufficient non-economic time to become educated citizens. He caustically attacked pure material consumption for its own sake, and the idea that utility equalled conspicuous consumption. JOHN DEWEY John Dewey (United States, 1859-1952)
FRIEDRICH NAUMANN Friedrich Naumann (Germany, 1860-1919) MAX WEBER Max Weber (Germany, 1864-1920) was a theorist of state power and the relationship of culture to economics. Argued that there was a moral component to capitalism rooted in "protestant" values. Weber was along with Friedrich Naumann active in the National Social Union and later in the German Democratic Party .
LEONARD HOBHOUSE Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse (United Kingdom, 1864-1929)
BENEDETTO CROCE Benedetto Croce (Italy, 1866-1952)
WALTHER RATHENAU Walther Rathenau (Germany, 1867-1922) WILLIAM BEVERIDGE William Beveridge (United Kingdom, 1879-1963)
LUDWIG VON MISES Ludwig Von Mises (Austria/United States, 1881-1973)
JOHN MAYNARD KEYNES The economist John Maynard Keynes (United Kingdom, 1883-1946) is best known for his work on monetary theory and Macroeconomics , which was an attempt to restructure private sector capitalist economies in the wake of the lessons of World War I and The Great Depression . He proposed policies which included short term intervention in the market, statistical econometrics as an important instrument of social policy, and an active use of government power. He was sharply critical of using economics for purely nationalist goals, or economic punishment as a means of attaining political ends, as well as the architect of the Bretton-Woods system. Keynes was an active member of the British Liberal Party .
JOSé ORTEGA Y GASSET José Ortega Y Gasset (Spain, 1883-1955)
SALVADOR DE MADARIAGA Salvador De Madariaga (Spain, 1886-1978) UPTON SINCLAIR While Upton Sinclair (United States, 1878-1968) himself was a socialist, his novels and writings attacking the excesses of corporations and industrialization, particularly ''The Jungle'' would have a tremendous influence towards persuading the public and political classes that regulation of products and labor standards was essential. WILL DURANT Will Durant 1885-1981 with Ariel Durant 1898-1981
ADOLF BERLE Adolf Berle (United States, 1895-1971) was author of ''The Modern Corporation and Private Property'', detailing the importance of differentiating between the management of corporations and the share holders who are the owners. Influential in the theory of New Deal policy.
WILHELM RöPKE Wilhelm Röpke (Germany, 1899-1966)
BERTIL OHLIN Bertil Ohlin (Sweden, 1899-1979)
FRIEDRICH HAYEK Friedrich Hayek (Austria/United Kingdom/United States/Germany, 1899-1992)
KARL POPPER Karl Raimund Popper (Austria/United Kingdom, 1902-1994)
ALAN PATON Alan Paton (South Africa, 1903-1988) contributed with his book ''Cry, The beloved country'' to a clear anti-apartheid stand of South African liberalism. His party, the South African Liberal Party was banned by the Apartheid government.
JOHN HICKS John Hicks (United Kingdom, 1904-1989) is known for his work in Macro-economics and Social Choice Theory . His macro-economic work produced the ISLM model of macro-economics, which would be the basis for much theory since then, including the work of Paul Krugman and Robert Mundell . In the area of social choice he argued for the necessity of placing freedom of choice in balance against social welfare to produce the best practical outcomes. RAYMOND ARON Raymond Aron (France, 1905-1983)
SIMONE DE BEAUVOIR Simone De Beauvoir (France 1908-1986) argued in her book The Second Sex that women were treated as legal and social inferiors, and that this was morally untenable. She was influential in the Women's Liberation movement.
JOHN KENNETH GALBRAITH John Kenneth Galbraith (Canadian-born Economist who worked in the United States, 1908-2006)
ISAIAH BERLIN Isaiah Berlin (Latvia/United Kingdom, 1909-1997) is most famous for his attempt to distinguish 'two conceptions of liberty'. Berlin argued that what he called 'positive' and 'negative' liberty were mutually opposing concepts. Positive conceptions assumed that liberty could only be achieved when collective power (in the form of church or state) acted to 'liberate' mankid from its worst aspects. These, Berlin felt, tended towards totalitarianism. Negative conceptions, by contrast, argued that liberty was achieved when individuals were given maximal freedom from external constraints (so long as these did not impinge on the freedom of others to achieve the same condition). Berlin was also a critique of dogmatic Enlightenment rationalism on the grounds that it was unable to accommodate value pluralism.
MILTON FRIEDMAN Milton Friedman (United States, 1912- )
ARTHUR SCHLESINGER JR. Arthur Schlesinger Jr. (United States, 1917- ) is an historian and philosopher of history, who chronicled the presidency of Franklin Delano Roosevelt and theorized on the importance of Progressive Moments in advancing liberalism.
JAMES BUCHANAN James Buchanan (United States, 1919- )
JOHN RAWLS John Rawls (United States, 1921-2002)
MURRAY NEWTON ROTHBARD Murray Rothbard (United States, 1926-1995) was one of the foremost advocators of Liberty and freedom in the late 20th Century. He has been associated with many different movements throughout his life, notably with Ayn Rand and, later, the Libertarian Party of United States. For the most part, Rothbard preached Austrian Economics , arguing against government involvement in both the economy and in personal life. His influence is felt strongly today in the libertarian and Anarcho-capitalist movements, as well as right wing organisations in general. GORE VIDAL Gore Vidal (United States, 1925- ) NOAM CHOMSKY The work of Noam Chomsky (United States, 1928 - ) work on "Universal Grammar" was seen as the first significant challenge to the ''behaviorist'' school of thought in psychology, which argued that all behaviors were merely the result of punishment and reward. Chomsky argued that the mind is cognitive, and therefore contains mental states and awareness, linking him to the liberal tradition of the dignity and uniqueness of the individual above and beyond environmental influences. In addition to his theories on linguistics, he has also become well known for his books and lectures that are critical of American foreign policies, such as financial support to Israel . In the political sense, he is not a liberal, but styles himself an Anarchist . RALF DAHRENDORF Ralf Dahrendorf (Germany/United Kingdom, 1929- )
KARL-HERMANN FLACH The journalist Karl-Hermann Flach (Germany, 1929-1973) was in his book ''Noch eine Chance für die Liberalen'' one of the main theorist of the new social liberal principles of the Free Democratic Party (Germany) . He places liberalism clearly as the opposite of Conservatism and opened the road for a government coalition with the social democrats. JOSEPH RAZ Joseph Raz (United Kingdom)
RONALD DWORKIN Ronald Dworkin (United States, 1931- ) RICHARD RORTY Richard Rorty (United States, 1931- ) is one of the leading contemporary philosophers of liberalism. His fundamental claims, among others, are that liberalism is best defined as the attempt to avoid cruelty to others; that liberals need to accept the historical 'irony' that there is no metaphysical justification for their belief that not being cruel is a virtue; that literature plays a crucial role in developing the empathy necessary to promote solidarity (and therefore lack of cruelty) between humans; and that private philosophising and public political discourse are separate practices and should remain so. AMARTYA SEN Amartya Sen (India, 1933- ) is an economist whose early work was based on Kenneth Arrow 's General Possibility Theorem, and on the impossibility of both complete Pareto Optimality and solely procedural based rights. Won Bank Of Sweden Prize In Economic Sciences for his work on Famine , Welfare Economics and Social Choice Theory . Advocate of rationality as the fundamental safe guard of freedom and justice.
ROBERT NOZICK Robert Nozick (United States, 1938-2002) was a Libertarian or Anarcho-capitalist , and a professor known for his fairness and intelligence.
HERNANDO DE SOTO The economist Hernando De Soto (Peru, 1941- ) is an advocate of transparency and private property rights, arguing that intransparent government leads to property not being given proper title, and therefore being "dead capital" which cannot be used as the basis of credit. Argues that laws which allocate property to those most able to use them for economic growth, so called "squatter's rights", are an important innovation.
BRUCE ACKERMAN Bruce Ackerman (United States)
JOSEPH STIGLITZ The economist Joseph Stiglitz was awarded a Nobel Prize for his work on market failures caused by Imperfect Information . While this work is rather dry to a non-economist it demonstrates how states can give great benefits to their populations with a light hand and avoid socialist policies like nationalisation. He is best known politically for his work first as an adviser to international institutions like the World Trade Organisation , and then as a commentator supportive of their principles but critical of their practices. (United States, 1943- )
MARTHA NUSSBAUM Martha Nussbaum (United States, 1947-present) elaborates the Rawlsian Theory Of Justice . For her, Rawls's Liberty Principle is only meaningful if viewed in terms of substantial freedoms, i.e. real opportunities based on personal and social circumstance. Likewise, Inequality in the Difference Principle has to be clarified in terms of capabilities. FRANCIS FUKUYAMA Francis Fukuyama (United States, 1952- ) Fukuyama is best known as the author of the Controversial Book '' The End Of History And The Last Man '', in which he argues that the progression of human history as a struggle between ideologies is largely at an end, with the world settling on Liberal Democracy after the end of the Cold War . Some people argue that Fukuyama is not a liberal but a (neo)conservative, or even a bio- Luddite or Bioconservative .
DIRK VERHOFSTADT In his book ''Het menselijk liberalisme'' Dirk Verhofstadt (Belgium, 1955- ) outlines a social liberal response to anti-globalism. Dirk Verhofstadt is brother of Belgian prime minister Guy Verhofstadt , member of the Flemish Liberals And Democrats and of Liberales {Link without Title} , an independent think tank within the liberal movement. Its members consider liberalism as a progressive movement supporting individual freedom, justice and human rights. Liberales reacts against narrow minded conservatism related to social economic, ecological and ethical issues supported by compartmentalized parties and structures.
WILL KYMLICKA Will Kymlicka (Canada, 1962- ) tries in his philosophy to determine if forms of ethnic or minority Nationalism are compatible with liberal-democratic principles of individual freedom, social equality and political democracy. In his book ''Multicultural Citizenship. A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights'' he argues that certain "collective rights" of minority cultures can be consistent with these liberal-democratic principles. |
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