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International Relations ('''IR'''), a branch of Political Science , is the study of foreign affairs of and relations among states within the '''international system''', including the roles of State s, Inter-governmental Organizations (IGOs), Non-governmental Organization s (NGOs), and Multinational Corporation s (MNCs). It is both an Academic and Public Policy field, and can be either Positive or Normative as it both seeks to analyze as well as formulate foreign policy. Apart from Political Science , IR draws upon such diverse fields as Economics , History , Law , Philosophy , Geography , Sociology , Anthropology , Psychology , and Cultural Studies . It involves a diverse range of issues, from Globalization and its impacts on societies and state Sovereignty to Ecological Sustainability , Nuclear Proliferation , Nationalism , Economic Development , Terrorism , Organized Crime and Human Rights . INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS THEORY See Also: International relations theory International Relations theory attempts to provide a Conceptual Model upon which international relations can be analyzed. Each theory is reductive and essentialist to different degrees, relying on different sets of assumptions respectively. As Oli Holsti describes them, international relations theories act as a pair of colored sunglasses, allowing the wearer to see only the salient events relevant to the theory. An adherent of Realism may completely disregard an event that a Constructivist might pounce upon as crucial, and vice versa. The number and character of the assumptions made by an International Relations theory also determine its usefulness. Realism , a Parsimonious and very essentialist theory, has less explanatory power, but greater predictive power. Liberalism , which examines a very wide number of conditions, is less useful in making predictions, but can be very insightful in analyzing past events. Traditional theories may have little to say about the behavior of former Colonies , but Post-colonial theory may have greater insight into that specific area, where it fails in other situations. HISTORY See Also: History of international relations The history of International Relations is often traced back to the and warriors sworn to the service of a state. Before the Westphalia settlement, there was no recognizable diplomatic profession. Spies , irregular Envoy s, and Heralds citing scripture or handing out ringing declamations were the usual route that princes chose to alert one another to each other's demands and to sound the start of war. After Westphalia, the Diplomatic craft was practiced by a kind of well-born guild, with members who were adept at melding Reason , Precedent , and law with quiet allusion to the implication of armed compunction. Before Westphalia, soldiers were led by contractors, private entrepreneurs who garnered pay from their won estates or from the lands they plundered. After Westphalia, soldiers were led by military bureaucrats who raised armies year-round and paid for their keep through Levies and Taxes . After Westphalia, Diplomat s and warriors began to share a kind of regulatory synergy. Both Diplomat and warrior sought less "victory," and more, the achievement of a favorable Peace . War , after Westphalia, as the great observer Carl Von Clausewitz put it, came to be a "stronger form of Diplomacy ," and the battlefield an extension of the conference chamber. Initially, International Relations as a distinct field of study was almost entirely English-centered. The first two schools to form academic divisions directly focused on the study of IR were: in 1919, the first Chair in International Politics established at the University Of Wales, Aberystwyth from an endowment given by David Davies ; and in the early 1920s the London School Of Economics 's department of International Relations, founded at the behest of Nobel Peace Prize winner Philip Noel-Baker . See Also: Diplomatic history Criticisms Critics of this interpretation of history argue that it is inherently Eurocentric ; some non-European territories recognized states in a manner resembling the Westphalian system before 1648 whereas others had wildly different systems. Others (such as Andrew Linklater ) argue that today's system is post-Westphalian due to the expansion of the political community into supranational governance through projects such as the European Union. Barry Buzan and Richard Little find that theories modeling their conceptualizations of international society on the Westphalian system are unable to grasp both the premodern international systems and answer the most important questions about international relations today. Buzan and Little therefore define an international system as a system in which it is possible to distinguish between an "inside" and an "outside" in political realms and consider an international system to have existed since the rise of civilisation in Sumeria . The Westphalian system sees the only official actors in International Relations as States . In today's world of Internet access and increased abilities to communicate quickly and easily with people all over the globe this is becoming less true to some people. This increased access to quick communication unlimited by distance allows non-governmental entities to coordinate their efforts more efficiently and more effectively. These entities can be Not For Profit groups, Environmental groups, local and Multinational Corporations , Farmers , Human Rights groups, Humanitarian Aid groups, Anti-globalization groups and any other group one could imagine. This increased efficiency allows for each group to carry out coordinated efforts with their or similar branches inside other States in forwarding their agendas and action plans. While each of these branches is technically acting in the Civic Society inside each State these coordinated efforts are affecting Bilateral and Multilateral international relations in significant ways. MECHANISMS OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS International Relations (IR) do not exist in an abstract vacuum—each state (and sometimes sub-state actor) utilizes institutions, traditions, identity, force, rhetoric, and other channels to influence the other actors in the international system. And while IR does not exist in an abstract vacuum they do take place in an anarchic system one analyses international relations from a political realist perspective . That is to say that there is no single world entity that any state can take any other state that is empowered with final arbitration over any dispute. In simple terms there is no final "court of higher authority" that can impose its will upon the states of the world. Should a State step out of line with the international norms put forth in International Law or violate the terms of a Treaty , and should Diplomacy not prove capable of resolving the conflict, there are a few recourses the offended State can turn to. If the States have Ratified a Treaty the offended State may take the issue to the Institution that oversees that Treaty . An example of this would be how trade disputes between members of the World Trade Organization (WTO), an outgrowth of the General Agreement On Tariffs And Trade (GATT), are handled in the WTO. A second major mechanism is the mobilization of international shame. This simply is the act of a State letting other States know of the actions of the offending State . Once it is open knowledge that a State is acting against international norms other States may put Diplomatic pressure on the offending State to come back into line with the international norms. More severe reactions could involve Embargos or the use of a Blockade . The ultimate mechanisms are Armed Conflict and War . Official
Unofficial
Covert
FUNCTIONAL CONCEPTS OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
REFERENCES
SEE ALSO Journals
IR Schools
Associations Institutes
EXTERNAL LINKS
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