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The Heian period (, running from 794 to 1185 . It is the period in Japanese history when Confucianism and other Chinese influences were at their height. The Heian period is also considered the peak of the Japanese Imperial Court and noted for its Art , especially Poetry and Literature . The name ''Heian'' (平安) is a word that means "peace" in Japanese. HISTORY The Heian period was preceded by the Nara Period and began in 794 after the movement of the capital of Japan to Heian-kyō (平安京, present-day Kyoto ) by the 50th emperor, Emperor Kammu (桓武天皇 ''Kammu Tennō''). It is considered a high point in Japanese culture that later generations have always admired. The period is also noted for the rise of the samurai class, which would eventually take power and start the feudal period of Japan. Nominally, sovereignty lay in the emperor but in fact power was wielded by the Fujiwara (藤原) nobility. However, to protect their interests in the provinces, the Fujiwara and other noble families required guards, police and soldiers. The Warrior Class made steady gains throughout the Heian period. As early as 939 , Taira No Masakado threatened the authority of the central government, leading an uprising in the eastern province of Hitachi , and almost simultaneously, Fujiwara no Sumitomo rebelled in the west. Still, military takeover was centuries away. Soon much of the strength of the government lay within the private armies of the shogunate. The entry of the warrior class into court influence was a result of the Hogen Disturbance . At this time Taira No Kiyomori (平 清盛) revived the Fujiwara practices by placing his grandson on the throne to rule Japan by regency. Their clan ( Taira Clan ) would not be overthrown until after the Genpei War , which marked the start of the Shogunate . The Kamakura Period began in 1185 when Minamoto No Yoritomo (源 頼朝) seized power from the emperors and established a '' Bakufu '' (幕府), the Kamakura Shogunate (鎌倉幕府), in Kamakura . DEVELOPMENTS IN BUDDHISM Buddhism (仏教 ''Bukkyō'') began to spread throughout Japan during the Heian period, primarily through two major esoteric sects, Tendai (天台, Heavenly Terrace) and Shingon (真言, True Word). Tendai originated in China and is based on the Lotus Sutra , one of the most important sutras of Mahayana Buddhism. Shingon is an indigenous sect with close affiliations to original Indian, Tibetan, and Chinese Buddhist thought founded by Kukai (空海, also called Kobo Daishi, 弘法大師). Kukai greatly impressed the emperors who succeeded Emperor Kammu ( 782 - 806 ), and also generations of Japanese, not only with his holiness but also with his poetry, calligraphy, painting, and sculpture. Kammu himself was a notable patron of the otherworldly Tendai sect, which rose to great power over the ensuing centuries. A close relationship developed between the Tendai monastery complex on Mount Hiei and the imperial court in its new capital at the foot of the mountain. As a result, Tendai emphasized great reverence for the emperor and the nation. The Heian period also saw the flowering of the Jodo Shinshu (浄土真宗), or True Pure Land, school, founded by Shinran (親鸞). HEIAN PERIOD LITERATURE Although written Chinese ( Kanbun , 漢文) remained the official language of the Heian period imperial court, the introduction and wide use of Kana (仮名) saw a boom in Japanese Literature . Despite the establishment of several new literary genre such as the Novel and narrative ''monogatari'' (物語) and essays, Literacy was only common among the court and Buddhist clergy. The lyrics of the modern Japanese national anthem, " Kimi Ga Yo ," were written in the Heian period, as was " The Tale Of Genji " (源氏物語 ''Genji Monogatari'') by Murasaki Shikibu (紫 式部), one of the first Novel s in Japanese . Murasaki Shikibu 's contemporary and rival Sei Shonagon (清 少納言)'s revealing observations and musings as an attendant in the Empress' court were recorded collectively as " The Pillow Book " (枕草子 ''Makura no sōshi'') in the 990s . The famous Japanese poem known as the Iroha (いろは) was also written during the Heian period. HEIAN PERIOD ECONOMICS While on one hand the Heian period was indeed an unusually long period of peace, it can also be argued that the period weakened Japan economically and led to poverty for all but a tiny few of its inhabitants. The aristocratic beneficiaries of Heian culture, the Yokibito meaning the Good People, numbered about five thousand in a land of perhaps five million. One reason the Samurai were able to take power was that the ruling nobility proved incompetent at managing Japan and its provinces. By the year 1000 the government no longer knew how to issue currency and money was gradually disappearing . The lack of a solid medium of economic exchange is implicitly illustrated in novels of the time, for instance messengers are rewarded with useful objects, e.g. an old silk Kimono , rather than paid a fee. The Fujiwara rulers also failed to maintain adequate police forces, which left robbers free to prey on travellers. This is again implicitly illustrated in novels by the terror that night travel inspired in the main characters. THE FUJIWARA REGENCY Phoenix Hall, built in Heian period]] When Emperor Kammu (桓武天皇 ''Kammu Tennō'') moved the capital to Heian-kyō ( Kyoto ), which remained the imperial capital for the next 1,000 years, he did so not only to strengthen imperial authority but also to improve his seat of government geopolitically. Kyoto had good river access to the sea and could be reached by land routes from the eastern provinces. The early Heian period ( 794 - 967 ) continued Nara culture; the Heian capital (Kyoto) was patterned on the Chinese Tang (唐) capital at Chang'an (長安, today's Xi'an , 西安), as was Nara, but on a larger scale. Despite the decline of the Taika-Taihō reforms, imperial government was vigorous during the early Heian period. Indeed, Kammu's avoidance of drastic reform decreased the intensity of political struggles, and he became recognized as one of Japan's most forceful emperors. Although Kammu had abandoned universal conscription in 792 , he still waged major military offensives to subjugate the Emishi (蝦夷), possible descendants of the displaced Jomon , living in northern and eastern Japan. After making temporary gains in 794 , in 797 Kammu appointed a new commander under the title Seii Taishogun (征夷大将軍, barbarian-subduing generalissimo; often referred to as Shogun , 将軍). By 801 the shogun had defeated the Emishi and had extended the imperial domains to the eastern end of Honshu . Imperial control over the provinces was tenuous at best, however. In the ninth and tenth centuries, much authority was lost to the great families, who disregarded the Chinese -style land and tax systems imposed by the government in Kyoto. Stability came to Heian Japan, but, even though succession was ensured for the imperial family through heredity, power again concentrated in the hands of one noble family, the Fujiwara (藤原). Following Kammu's death in 806 and a succession struggle among his sons, two new offices were established in an effort to adjust the Taika-Taiho administrative structure. Through the new Emperor's Private Office, the emperor could issue administrative edicts more directly and with more self-assurance than before. The new Metropolitan Police Board replaced the largely ceremonial imperial guard units. While these two offices strengthened the emperor's position temporarily, soon they and other Chinese -style structures were bypassed in the developing state. Chinese influence effectively ended with the last imperial-sanctioned mission to Tang China in 838 . Tang China was in a state of decline, and Chinese Buddhists were severely persecuted, undermining Japanese respect for Chinese institutions. Japan began to turn inward. As the Soga had taken control of the throne in the Sixth Century , the Fujiwara by the Ninth Century had intermarried with the Imperial Family , and one of their members was the first head of the Emperor's Private Office. Another Fujiwara became regent, Sessho (摂政) for his grandson, then a minor emperor, and yet another was appointed Kanpaku (関白, regent for an adult emperor). Toward the end of the Ninth Century , several emperors tried, but failed, to check the Fujiwara. For a time, however, during the reign of Emperor Daigo ( 897 - 930 ), the Fujiwara regency was suspended as he ruled directly. Nevertheless, the Fujiwara were not demoted by Daigo but actually became stronger during his reign. Central control of Japan had continued to decline, and the Fujiwara, along with other great families and religious foundations, acquired ever larger '' Shoen '' (荘園) and greater wealth during the early Tenth Century . By the early Heian period, the ''shoen'' had obtained legal status, and the large religious establishments sought clear titles in perpetuity, waiver of taxes, and immunity from government inspection of the ''shoen'' they held. Those people who worked the land found it advantageous to transfer title to ''shoen'' holders in return for a share of the harvest. People and lands were increasingly beyond central control and taxation, a de facto return to conditions before the Taika Reform. Within decades of Daigo's death, the Fujiwara had absolute control over the court. By the year 1000, Fujiwara No Michinaga (藤原道長) was able to enthrone and dethrone emperors at will. Little authority was left for traditional officialdom, and government affairs were handled through the Fujiwara family's private administration. The Fujiwara had become what historian George B. Sansom has called "hereditary dictators." Despite their usurpation of imperial authority, the (片仮名), a mnemonic device using parts of Chinese ideograms; and Hiragana (平仮名), a cursive form of katakana writing and an art form in itself. Hiragana gave written expression to the spoken word and, with it, to the rise in Japan's famous vernacular literature, much of it written by court women who had not been trained in Chinese as had their male counterparts. Three late Tenth Century and early Eleventh Century women presented their views of life and romance at the Heian court in "The Gossamer Years" (蜻蛉日記 ''Kagero nikki'') by "the mother of Michitsuna", " The Pillow Book " (枕草子 ''Makura no soshi'') by Sei Shonagon (清 少納言) and " The Tale Of Genji " (源氏物語 ''Genji monogatari'') by Murasaki Shikibu (紫 式部). Indigenous art also flourished under the Fujiwara after centuries of imitating Chinese forms. Vividly colored Yamato-e (大和絵) Japanese style paintings of court life and stories about temples and shrines became common in the mid- and late Heian periods, setting patterns for Japanese art to this day. As culture flourished, so did decentralization. Whereas the first phase of '' Shoen '' (荘園) development in the early Heian period had seen the opening of new lands and the granting of the use of lands to aristocrats and religious institutions, the second phase saw the growth of patrimonial "house governments," as in the old clan system. (In fact, the form of the old clan system had remained largely intact within the great old centralized government.) New institutions were now needed in the face of social, economic, and political changes. The Taiho Code lapsed, its institutions relegated to ceremonial functions. Family administrations now became public institutions. As the most powerful family, the Fujiwara governed Japan and determined the general affairs of state, such as succession to the throne. Family and state affairs were thoroughly intermixed, a pattern followed among other families, monasteries, and even the imperial family. Land management became the primary occupation of the aristocracy, not so much because direct control by the imperial family or central government had declined but more from strong family solidarity and a lack of a sense of Japan as a single nation. THE RISE OF THE MILITARY CLASS Under the early courts, when military (literally, one who serves). Bushi interests were diverse, cutting across old power structures to form new associations in the tenth century. Mutual interests, family connections, and kinship were consolidated in military groups that became part of family administration. In time, large regional military families formed around members of the court aristocracy who had become prominent provincial figures. These military families gained prestige from connections to the imperial court and court-granted military titles and access to manpower. The Fujiwara Clan (藤原氏), Taira Clan (平氏), and Minamoto Clan (源氏) were among the most prominent families supported by the new military class. Decline in food production, growth of the population, and competition for resources among the great families all led to the gradual decline of Fujiwara power and gave rise to military disturbances in the mid-tenth and eleventh centuries. Members of the Fujiwara , Taira , and Minamoto families--all of whom had descended from the imperial family--attacked one another, claimed control over vast tracts of conquered land, set up rival regimes, and generally broke the peace of the Land of the Rising Sun. The Fujiwara controlled the throne until the reign of Emperor Go-Sanjō ( 1068 - 73 ), the first emperor not born of a Fujiwara mother since the ninth century. Go-Sanjo, determined to restore imperial control through strong personal rule, implemented reforms to curb Fujiwara influence. He also established an office to compile and validate Estate records with the aim of reasserting central control. Many ''shoen'' were not properly certified, and large landholders, like the Fujiwara, felt threatened with the loss of their lands. Go-Sanjo also established the ''Incho'', or Office of the Cloistered Emperor, which was held by a succession of emperors who abdicated to devote themselves to behind-the-scenes governance, or '' Insei '' (院政, cloistered government). The ''Incho'' filled the void left by the decline of Fujiwara power. Rather than being banished, the Fujiwara were mostly retained in their old positions of civil dictator and minister of the center while being bypassed in decision making. In time, many of the Fujiwara were replaced, mostly by members of the rising Minamoto Family . While the Fujiwara fell into disputes among themselves and formed northern and southern factions, the ''insei'' system allowed the paternal line of the imperial family to gain influence over the throne. The period from 1086 to 1156 was the age of supremacy of the ''Incho'' and of the rise of the military class throughout the country. Military might rather than civil authority dominated the government. A struggle for succession in the mid-twelfth century gave the Fujiwara an opportunity to regain their former power. Fujiwara No Yorinaga sided with the retired emperor in a violent battle in 1156 against the heir apparent, who was supported by the Taira and Minamoto ( Hogen Rebellion , 保元の乱). In the end, the Fujiwara were destroyed, the old system of government supplanted, and the ''insei'' system left powerless as Bushi took control of court affairs, marking a turning point in Japanese history. In 1159 , the Taira and Minamoto clashed ( Heiji Rebellion , 平治の乱), and a twenty-year period of Taira ascendancy began. The Taira were seduced by court life and ignored problems in the provinces. Finally, Minamoto No Yoritomo (源 頼朝, 1147 – 1199 ) rose from his headquarters at Kamakura (鎌倉, in the Kanto region, southwest of modern Tokyo ) to defeat the Taira, and with them the child emperor, Emperor Antoku they controlled, in the Genpei War (治承・寿永の乱 or 源平合戦, 1180 – 1185 ). |
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