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Gandhāra (also '''Ghandara''', '''Ghandahra''', '''Chandahara''', and Persian '''Gandara''') is the name of an ancient Mahajanapada in eastern Afghanistan and north-west province of Pakistan . Gandhara was located mainly on northern side of Kabul River . In the east, it extended beyond Indus River and included within its boundaries parts of the valley of Kashmir (Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 151). Kingdom of Gandhara lasted from 6th Century BC to 11th Century AD. It attained its height from 1st century to 5th Century AD under Buddhist Kushan Kings. After it was conquered by Mahmood of Ghazni in 1021 AD, the name Gandhara disappeared. During Muslim period the area was administered from Lahore or from Kabul. During Mughals time area was part of Kabul province. GEOGRAPHY .]] The Gandharas were settled since the Vedic times on the banks of Kabul River (river Kubha or Kabol) up to its mouth into Indus .The region is known as Peshawar Valley. Later the Gandhras crossed the Indus and included parts of north-west Punjab of Pakistan. Gandhara was located on the grand ''northern high road'' ( Uttarapatha ) and was a centre of international commercial activities. It was an important channel of communication with ancient Iran and Central Asia . The boundaries of Gandhara varied throughout the history. Sometime Peshawar valley and Taxila collectively referred as Gandhara. Sometime Swat valley was also included. However, heart of Gandhara was always Peshawar valley. The kingdom was ruled from capitals at Pushkalavati (Charsadda), Taxila, Purushapura (Peshawar) and in its final days from Udabhandapura (Hund) on the Indus. ANCIENT GANDHARA Pre Historic Period In Gandhara the evidence of existence of Stone Age men were found at Sanghao near Mardan. Discovered by Dani, stone tools and burnt bones dated 70,000 near were found near caves. Caves itself were occupied around 15,000 years ago. Till to date no evidence of Harappan Culture of Indus Valley Civilization has been found in Gandhara. The Aryans moved in to Gandhara and rest of North Western Pakistan around 1500BC. The region shows an influx of southern Central Asian culture in the Bronze Age with the Gandhara Grave Culture , likely corresponding to immigration of Indo-Aryan speakers and the nucleus of Vedic Civilization . This culture survived till 600 BC. Its evidnce has been discovered in the Hilly regions of Swat and Dir , and even at Taxila. The name of the Gandharis is attested from the Rigveda . The Gandharis, along with the Mujavantas, Anga s and the Magadha s, are also mentioned in the Atharavaveda , but apparently as a despised people. Gandharas are included in the Uttarapatha division of Puranic and Buddhistic traditions. Aitareya Brahmana refers to king Naganajit of Gandhara who was contemporary of Shah Janaka of Videha. Gandharas and their king figure prominently as strong allies of the Kuru s against the Pandava s in Mahabharata war. The Gandharas were a furious people, well trained in the art of war. According to Puranic traditions, this Janapada was founded by ''Gandhara'', son of Aruddha, a descendent of Yayati. The princes of this country are said to have come from the line of Druhyu who was a famous king of Rigvedic period. The river Indus watered the lands of Gandhara. According to Vayu Purana (II.36.107), the Gandharas were destroyed by Pramiti aka Kalika , at the end of Kalyuga. tradition, Terracotta , Sar Dheri, Gandhara, 1st century BCE. Victoria And Albert Museum .]] The Gandhara kingdom sometimes also included Kashmira (Jataka No 406). Hecataeus of Miletus (549-468) refers to Kaspapyros (Kasyapura ''i.e.'' Kashmira) as Gandaric city. According to Gandhara Jataka , at one time, Gandhara formed a part of the kingdom of Kashmir. Jataka also gives another name ''Chandahara'' for Gandhara. Buddhist texts like Anguttara Nikaya refer to sixteen great nations (solas Mahajanapadas ) which flourished in India n Sub-continent during Buddha 's time, only two of which viz. the Gandhara and the Kamboja were located in the Uttarapatha or the north-western division. Gandhāra is also thought to be the location of the mystical Lake Dhanakosha , birthplace of Padmasambhava , founder of Tibetan Buddhism . The BKa' Brgyud (Kagyu) sect of Tibetan Buddhism identifies the lake with Andan Dheri Stupa , located near the tiny village of Uchh near Chakdara in the lower Swat Valley . A spring was said to flow from the base of the stupa to form the lake. Archaeologists have found the stupa but no spring or lake can be identified. The primary cities of Gandhara were Purushpura (now Peshawar ), Takshashila (Prakrit Taxila ) and Pushklavati . Last two cities are said to have been named after Taksa and Pushkara, the two sons of Bharata , a prince of Ayodhya . Pushkalavati & Prayag Pushkalavati remained capital of Gandhara from 6th Century BC to 2nd century AD, when capital moved to Peshawar. An important Buddhist shrine kept city as center of pilgrimage until 7th century AD. Pushkalavati had some significant for earlier Aryans. This city in Peshawar Valley is situated at the confluence of Swat and Kabul rivers. Three different branches of River Kabul meet there. That specific place is still called Prang and considered sacred. The local people still bring their dead for burial. Aryans found similar geographical characteristics at the confluence of Ganga and Yamuna and founded sacred city by the name of Prayag near Benares . This is one of the ancient pilgrim centres of India. City of Taxila By the time of Buddha, beside Benares, Taxila became renowned center of learning where scholars from all over the world came to seek higher education. In Jataka stories this city was always mentioned as center of learning. Panini , the Indian genius of grammar and Kautiliya , the Indian Machiavelli were the products of Taxila University. Later in 2nd Century AD, Charaka, Kanishka’s court doctor and the great master of Indian medical science studied there. PERSIAN RULE Cyrus the Great (558-530 BCE) built first universal empire of the world stretching from Greece to the Indus River. Both Gandhara and Kamboja soon fell a prey to the Achaemenian Dynasty of Persia during the reign of Cyrus The Great or in the first year of Darius I . The Gandhara and Kamboja had constituted the seventh satrapys(upper Indus) of the Achaemenid Empire . When Achamenian took control of this kingdom, Pushkra-sakti a contemporary of king Bimbisara of Magadha was the king of Gandhara. He was in power struggle against kingdoms of Avanti and Pandavas. The inscription on Darius’ (521-486 BC) tomb at Naqsh-i-Rustam near Persepolis recorded GADARA (Gandhara) along with HINDUSH (West Punjab) in the list of satrapies. The Greek historian Herodotus (490-420 ? BC) in his book ''The Histories'' gave list of twenty provinces of Persian Empire. He reported Gandhara as ''Paktuike'' (3:93) and in another passage identified this territory with Peshawar Valley (4:44). The word ''Paktuike'' is interesting since present inhabitants of Gandhara are known as Pakhtun. Under Persian rule system of centralized administration and bureaucratic system introduced to the region. Influenced by the Persians and access to Western Asians civilization, the great scholars like Panini and Kautaliya born in this cosmopolitan environment. ''Kharosti'' alphabet derived from Aramaic (official language of Achaemenians) alphabet developed here and remained national script of Gandhara until third century AD. By about 380 BC Persian hold weakened. Many small kingdoms sprang in Gandhara. Around 327 BC Alexander the Great invaded Gandhara and Indian Satrapies of Persian Empire. His stay in this area was merely less than a year. This did not have any immediate administrative or cultural effect. The expeditions of Alexander were recorded by Arrian (around 175 AD) in ''Anabasis'' and other chroniclers many centuries after the event. The names of places and personalities described in these chronicles are difficult to identify. The companions of Alexander The Great did not record the names of Kamboja and Gandhara and rather located a dozen small political units in their territories. Alexander conqured most of these political units of the former Gandhara and Kamboja Mahajanapadas. According to Greek chroniclers, at the time of Alexander's invasion, hyparchs Kubhesha, Hastin (Astes) and Ambhi (Omphes) were ruling lower Kabul valley, Puskalavati (modern Charasadda) and Taxila respectively, while Ashvajit (chief of Aspasios or Ashvayana s) and Assakenos (chief of Assakenois or Ashvakayana s) (both being sub-units of the Kambojas) were ruling upper Kabul valley and Mazaga (Mashkavati) respectively. GANDHARA UNDER THE MAURYAS Chandergupta, the founder of Mauryan dynasty was living in Taxila when Alexander captured this city. Here he met Kautilya, who remained his chief adviser throughout his career. Gandhara was won back from the Greeks by Chandragupta Maurya . Having defeated Seleucus Nicator ( Alexander's successor in Asia ) in 305 BCE, the Mauryan Emperor extended his domains up to and including Southern Afghanistan . Using this Gandhara as his base Chandergupta led a rebellion against Magadha Empire and ascended to the throne at Pataliputra in 321 BC. He was the first ruler of Mauryan dynasty. Mauryan inherited and incorporated many Iranian traditions of Achaemenid Empire, which later, became the basis of Kautaliya’s book on statecraft. With the completion of the Empire's Grand Trunk Road, the region presumably prospered as a center of trade. Gandhara remained a part of the Mauryan Empire for close to a century and a half. Ashoka, the grandson of Chandergupta was the one of the greatest rulers the world has ever known. Like his grandfather, Ashoka also started his career from Gandhara as a governor. Later he became Buddhist and promoted this religion in his empire. He built many stupas in Gandhara, Mauryan control over northern frontagers including the Yona s, Kambojas and the Gandharas is attested from the Rock Edicts left by Ashoka , who shows special solicitude for these frontier highlanders. His successors, however, failed to cast such imperial shadows throughout the sub-continent. It is also held by some scholars that the Gandhara s and the Kambojas were one peope. Based on time and space contiguity, this view does not seem to be wide off the mark. GANDHARA UNDER GRAECO BACTRIANS, SAKAS AND INDO-PARTHINAS .]] The decline of the Empire left the Sub-continent open to Greco-Bactrian expansion. Southern Afghanistan was absorbed by Demetrius of Bactria in 180 BCE . Round about 185BC, Demetrius, King of Bactria invaded and conquered Gandhara and the Punjab. Later, wars between different groups of Greek settlers of Bactria, resulted independence of Gandhara from Bactria. Menander was the most famous king. He ruled from Taxila and later from Sagala (Sialkot). He rebuilt Taxila (Sirkup) and Pushkalavati. He became Buddhist and remembered in Buddhists records due to his discussions with a great Buddhist philosopher in the book ''Millinda-panha''. Around the time of Menander’s death in 140 BC, Kushans overran Bactria and ended Greek rule there. At the same time, Sakas, diverted by their Parthian cousins from Iran moved into Gandhara and other parts of present Pakistan and West India. The most famous king of Sakas was Maves who established himself in Gandhara. The entry of Sakas in about 97 BC was an important event. The Pashtu (or Pakhtu) now spoken in North Western Pakistan and Afghanistan is said to based on Saka’s language. By 90 BC Parthians took control of east Iran and around 50 BC put an end to last remnants of Greek rule in Afghanistan. By 7AD a Parthian dynasty succeeded to took control of Gandhara. It was Parthians, the destroyers of Greek rule who brought Greek artistic traditions to Gandhara. It was from this time (50BC – 75AD) that we see development of Gandhara School of Art. During this period Thomas The Apostle visited India, encountered the Indo-Parthian king Gondophares . THE GOLDEN AGE OF KUSHANS RULE The Parthian dynasty fell about 75 AD to another horde from Central Asia. Kushans, a Turkish type people known as Yueh-Chih in China moved from Central Asia to Bacteria, where they stayed for a century. Around 75 AD, one of the tribe Kushan under the leadership of Kujula Kadphises gained control of Gandhara and other part of present Pakistan. Kushan period is considered the Golden Period of Gandhara. Peshawar Valley and Taxila are littered with ruins of stupas and monasteries of this period. Gandhara art flourished and produced some of the best pieces of sculpture of all time. Many monuments were created to commemorate the Jataka tales. Gandhara civilization peaked during great Kushan king Kanishka (128-151-AD). This was the golden period of Gandhara. Cities of Taxila at Sirsukh, and Peshawar were built. Peshawar became the capital of great empire stretching from Bengal to Central Asia. Kanishka was a great patron of the faith and Buddhism spread to Central Asia and Far East over the Pamir where his empire met Han Empire of China. Kanishka Empire was known as Kingdom of Gandhara and under his leadership it became the center of civilization. The Buddhist art spread outward from Gandhara to other parts of Asia. He greatly encouraged Buddhism. Before Kanishka Buddha was not represented in human form. In Gandhara Mahayana Buddhism flourished and Buddha was represented in human form and given a status of a deity. Kanishka created big monuments of Arts. He builds a great tower to a height of 400 feet at Peshawar. This tower was reported by Fa-Hien, Sun-Yun and Hsuan-Tsang. This structure was destroyed and builds many times and remained in semi ruins when finally destroyed by Mahmood in 11th century. Under him Gandhara became a holy land of Buddhism and attracted Chinese pilgrimage to visit Gandhara to see monuments associated with many Jataka tales. After Kanishka, empire started losing territories in the east. In west it came under Sassanian (who took power from Parthians in Iran) suzerainty and became their vassals and ruled from 241-450AD. Under these Kushan chiefs new Buddhists stupas continued to appear and old ones were enlarged. Huge statues of the Buddha were erected in monasteries and carved into the hillsides. GANDHARA AFTER HUNS INVASION Huns captured Gandhara around 450 AD, and did not adopt Buddhism. During their rule, Hinduism revived and Gandharan Civilization declined. Sassanians aided by Turks destroyed the Huns' power base in Central Asia and Gandhara once again came under Persian suzerainty in 568 AD. When the Sassanians were defeated by Muslim Arabs in 644 AD, Gandhara along with Kabul was ruled by Buddhist Turks. The travel records of many Chinese Buddhists pilgrims record that Gandhara was going through a transformation during these centuries. Buddhism was declining and Hinduism was rising. Fa-Hien travelled around 400 AD, when Prakrit was the language of the people and Buddhism was flourishing. 100 years later, when Sung-Yun visited in 520 AD, a different picture is described: the area had been destroyed by Huns and was ruled by Lae-Lih who did not practice law of Buddha. Hiun-Tsang visited around 644 and found Buddhism on the wane and Hinduism in the ascendant. Gandhara was ruled by a king from Kabul, who respected Buddha law, but Taxila was in ruins and Buddhist monasteries were deserted. Instead, Hindu temples were numerous and Hinduism was popular. GANDHARA UNDER TURKSHAHI & HINDUSHAHI After the fall of Sassanian Empire to Arabs in 644 AD Afghanistan and Gandhara came under pressure from Muslims. But they failed to extend their empire to Gandhara. Gandhara was first ruled from Kabul and then from Udabhandapura (Hind). In 665 AD Kabul was put under siege by Arabs, but they never tried to cross Hindu Kush. Arabs never fully subdued Kabul and Gandhara was ruled from there by Turkshahi for next 200 years. Sometime in 9th century Hindushahi replaced Turkshahi. The date of Hindushahi takeover from Turkshahi (Also recorded as Kabulshahi) is not certain. Based on various Muslim records the estimated date is 870 AD. According to Al-Biruni (973-1048 AD), Kallar a Brahmin minister of Turkshahi founded Hindushahi dynasty in 843 AD. The dynasty ruled from Kabul, later moved capital to Udabhandapura. They build great temples all over their kingdoms. Some of these buildings are still in good conditions in the Salt Range of the Punjab. End of Gandhara Jayapala was the last great king of this dynasty. His empire extended from west of Kabul to the River Sutlej. However, timing of this expansion of Gandhara kingdom coincided with the rising of a powerful Muslim force of Mahmood in Kabul valley. He was defeated by Mahmood of Ghazni. After his defeat, proud king Jayapala committed suicide. Son of Jaypala Anandpala moved his capital near Nandana in Salt Range. In 1021 AD the last king of this dynasty Trilocanpala assassinated by his own troops. Name of Gandhara was forgotten for ever. Kandhar in Afghanistan was probably named after Gandhara. According to H.W. Bellow, emigrant from Gandhara in fifth century AD brought this name to modern Kandhar. Fa-Hien reported Buddha’s alms-bowl in Peshawar Valley when he visited around 400 AD. (Chapter-XII) In 1872 Bellow saw this huge begging bowl 7 feet in diameter preserved in the shrine of Sultan Wais outside Kandhar, which was probably brought there by refuge Buddhists monks. When Caroe wrote his book in 1958(Caroe, pp170-171), this relic was reported to be at Kabul Museum Present status of this bowl is not known due to the war in Afghanistan since last couple of decades. DISCOVERY OF GANDHARA By the time Gandhara absorbed in to Mahmood of Ghazni Empire, Buddhist buildings were already in ruins and Gandhara Art had been forgetton. After Al-Biruni, Kashmiri writer Kahana wrote his book ''Rajatarangini'' in 1148AD. He recorded events about Gandhara, its last royal dynasty and capital ''Udabhandapura''. The history and art of the Gandhara remained unknown to the inhabitants of the area and rest of the world until 19th century. In 19th Century AD, British soldiers and administrators started taking interest in the ancient history of the Indian Subcontinent. In 1830’s coins of post Ashoka period were discovered and in the same period Chinese travelogues were translated. Charles Masson , James Prinsep and Cunningham deciphered Kharosthi script in 1838. Chinese records provided locations and site plans of Buddhists shrines. Along with discovery of coins, these records provided necessary clues to piece togather the history of Gandhara. In 1848 Cunningham found Gandhara sculptures in north of Peshawar. He also identified the site of Taxila in 1860’s. From than on large number of Buddha statues started to discover in Peshawar valley. Marshal performed excavation of Taxila from 1912 to 1934. He discovered Greek, Parthian, and Kushan cities and large number of stupas and monastries. These discovery helped to finalize the chronology of history of Gandhara and its art. After 1947 Ahmed Hassan Dani and Archelogy Department of Peshawar University made number of discoveries in the Peshawra and Swat Vallies. Excavation on many site of Gandhara Civilzation are being done by the reserchesrs from many universitis around the world. LANGUAGE , Gandhara, 3rd Century . Guimet Museum .]] The Gandharan Buddhist Texts are both the earliest Buddhist Texts and the earliest India n manuscripts ever discovered. Most are composed on birch bark and were found in labeled clay pots. Panini has mentioned both Vedic form Gandhari as well as the later form Gandhari in his Ashtadhyayi . Gandhara's language, Gāndhārī , was a collection of related Prakrit or "Middle Indo-Aryan" dialects. Gāndhārī was written right-to-left in the Kharoṣṭhī script, which was ultimately adapted from the Aramaic Alphabet . At the time of its adoption, Gandhāra was controlled by the Achaemenid Dynasty of the Persian Empire , which used a similar script to write the related Iranian languages of the Empire. This alphabet also sets Gāndhārī apart as a unique set of dialects of the Middle Indo-Aryan period; Semitic scripts were not used to write Indian languages again until the arrival of Islam and subsequent adoption of the Persian-style Arabic Alphabet for New Indo-Aryan languages like Urdu , Punjabi , Sindhi and Kashmiri . Kharosthi script died out about the 4th century, though Hindko and Kohistani, descendants of these distinct regional dialects are still spoken today. Gandhara was a predominantly Indo-Aryan country. Most of the present inhabitants of Gandhara are Pakhtu (Pashtu ) speakers. Pakhtu is an Iranian language of Sakas. During 8th and 10th Pakhtun (Also called Afghans) started to move to Kabul valley. Pakhtuns origin is not clear. They were probably originated in the area now known as Kandhar. Turkshahi and Hindushahi first tried to stop their movement but later allowed to settle them in Lamghan to resist the Arabs expansion. From 13th century Afghan tribes started moving in to Peshawar valley and by 15th century became dominant ethnic group. GANDHARAN PROSELYTISM Lokaksema (Ch: 支谶, Zhi Chan), first translator of a Mahayana Sutra into Chinese .]] Gandharan Buddhist missionaries were active, with other monks from Central Asia, from the 2nd Century CE in the Chinese capital of Loyang , and particularly distinguished themselves by their translation work. They promoted both Theravada and Mahayana scriptures.
''See also: Silk Road Transmission Of Buddhism '' GANDHARAN ART Gandhāra is noted for the distinctive Gandhāra style of Buddhist Art , a consequence of merger of Greek, Syrian, Persian and Indian art traditions. The development of this form of art started in Parthian Period(50BC – 75AD). Gandhāran style flourished and achieved its peak during the Kushan period from 1st Century to 5th Century. It declined and suffered destruction after invasion of the White Huns in the 5th century. ''See also: Greco-Buddhist Art '' |
Image:GandharaMotherGoddessJPGMother Goddess (fertility Divinity), Derived From The
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Image:Buddha Gandhara KabuljpgThe Buddha
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Image:Buddha-HeraklesJPGThe Buddha And
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Image:GandharaScrollsJPGHellenistic Decorative Scrolls From
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