Formal Language

An alphabet might be

\left \{ a , b 
ight \}

, and a string over that alphabet might be

ababba

.

A typical language over that alphabet, containing that string, would be the set of all strings which contain the same number of symbols

a

and

b

.

The empty word (that is, length-zero string) is allowed and is often denoted by

e

\epsilon

\Lambda

. While the alphabet is a finite set and every string has finite length, a language may very well have infinitely many member strings (because the length of words in it may be unbounded).

A question often asked about formal languages is "how difficult is it to decide whether a given word belongs to the language?"
This is the domain of Computability Theory and Complexity Theory .

EXAMPLES

Some examples of formal languages:

the set of all words over ${a, b}$

the set $\left \{ a^{n}
ight\}$ , n is a Prime Number and $a^{n}$ means $a$ repeated $n$ times

Finite languages, such as ${a, aa, bba}$ -

the set of syntactically correct programs in a given programming language; or

the set of inputs upon which a certain Turing Machine halts.

SPECIFICATION

A formal language can be specified in a great variety of ways, such as:

Strings produced by some Formal Grammar (see Chomsky Hierarchy );

Strings produced by a Regular Expression ;

Strings accepted by some Automaton , such as a Turing Machine or Finite State Automaton ;

From a set of related YES/NO questions those ones for which the answer is YES — see Decision Problem .

OPERATIONS

Several operations can be used to produce new languages from given ones. Suppose

L_{1}

and

L_{2}

are languages over some common alphabet.

The ''concatenation'' $L_{1}L_{2}$ consists of all strings of the form $vw$ where $v$ is a string from $L_{1}$ and $w$ is a string from $L_{2}$ .

The ''intersection'' $L_1 \cap L_2$ of $L_{1}$ and $L_{2}$ consists of all strings which are contained in $L_1$ and also in $L_{2}$ .

The ''union'' $L_1 \cup L_2$ of $L_{1}$ and $L_{2}$ consists of all strings which are contained in $L_{1}$ or in $L_{2}$ .

The ''complement'' of the language $L_{1}$ consists of all strings over the alphabet which are not contained in $L_{1}$ .

The ''right quotient'' $L_{1}/L_{2}$ of $L_{1}$ by $L_{2}$ consists of all strings $v$ for which there exists a string $w$ in $L_{2}$ such that $vw$ is in $L_{1}$ .

The '' Kleene Star '' $L_{1}^{---}$ consists of all strings which can be written in the form $w_{1}w_{2}...w_{n}$ with strings $w_{i}$ in $L_{1}$ and $n \ge 0$ . Note that this includes the empty string $\epsilon$ because $n = 0$ is allowed.

The ''reverse'' $L_{1}^{R}$ contains the reversed versions of all the strings in $L_{1}$ .

The ''shuffle'' of $L_{1}$ and $L_{2}$ consists of all strings which can be written in the form $v_{1}w_{1}v_{2}w_{2}...v_{n}w_{n}$ where $n \ge 1$ and $v_{1},...,v_{n}$ are strings such that the concatenation $v_{1}...v_{n}$ is in $L_{1}$ and $w_{1},...,w_{n}$ are strings such that $w_{1}...w_{n}$ is in $L_{2}$ .

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Information About

Formal Language